1. Intro to the Human Brain

2. Today’s Objectives Content Objective  I can explain how the brain works and how it is studied.  I can display critical thinking about research studies. Language Objective  I can define Localization of Function and Brain Plasticity.

3. Today’s Key Terms  Neurology  Localization of Function  Frontal Lobe  Hippocampus  Neuron  Brain Plasticity  MRI and fMRI

4. Top Myths about our Brains  What ideas or theories have you heard about our brains? Top Myths about Our Brains Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfgkAJmp9-A  Which of the ideas that we listed can we take off?

5. Neurology  The study of the brain and its functioning.

6. Localization of Function  The principle that certain areas in the brain are responsible for certain behaviors.

7. Localization of Function: The Frontal Lobe  The Frontal Lobe is responsible for self-control, planning, social judgment, and other higher-order thinking tasks.  Sociopaths (Far Right) have been shown to have less activity in their Frontal Lobe.

8. Localization of Function: Hippocampus  The Hippocampus is an area deep in the brain responsible for the storage of new memories.  Damaged Hippocampus = No New Memories.

9. Neurons  Neurons are cells that make up the nervous system (including the brain) that specialize in communication of information throughout the body  Brains consist of billions of Neurons and Trillions of Neural connections. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9p2ou1IyC0

10. Brain Plasticity  The Principle that the brain changes over time and depending on our environment.  Our brains are always changing.  Use it or Loose It! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5KLPxDtMqe8

11. How do Neurologists study the Brain?  Throughout history Neurologists have used a variety of tools to study the brain.  Post-Mortem Examination  Brain Damage Case Studies  Modern Technology (MRI, fMRI, PET)  Key Question: Why might each of these methods have been used? What are the strengths and limitations of each?

12. Post Mortem Studies  After individuals (or animals) die, their brains are dissected and compared to normally functioning brains.  Example: Rosenweig (1972)

13. Rosenzweig (1972)  Aim: To determine how the environment can impact the neurological development of rats.  Method: Randomly assigned lab rats to one of three conditions.  Control: Typical Laboratory Cage (other rats, adequate room and food/water.)  Impoverished: Small cage, isolated, adequate food/water.  Enriched: Large space, Multiple Toys, Companions, adequate food/water. After living 4-10 weeks, they were killed and autopsies were performed on their brains (randomly assigned numbers to eliminate researcher bias).

14. Rosenzweig (1972) Cont.  Findings: The enriched rats had… 1.Thicker and heavier cerebral cortexes 2. Larger Neurons  Conclusion: An enriched environment produced more developed and bigger brains.  Critical Thinking:  Artificial environment limited Ecological Validity.  Ethical?  Applications?

15. Brain Damage Cases  The close examination of individuals with traumatic brain damage.  By studying how their behavior has changed, we can understand what that part of the brain is responsible for.  Example: Dimasio et al (1994) – The case of Phineas Gage Gage VideoGage Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKaDWu2zFG0

16. Dimasio et al (1994)  Aim: To determine what areas of Phineas Gage’s brain was damaged in the accident.  Method: Used MRI technology to create a model of the accident and determine what areas were damaged.

17. Dimasio et al (1994) cont.  Finding: The frontal lobe, and only the frontal lobe were damaged in the accident.  Conclusion: The frontal lobe is responsible for self- control and social processing.  Critical Thinking:  Reliable?

18. Brain Imaging Technology  In recent decades, scientists can use non-invasive technology to take images of the brain of functioning brains.  MRI- Creates an Image of the structure of the brain  fMRI- Shows activity in the brain.  Example: Corkin et al. (1997): HM

19. Corkin et al (1997)  Aim: To determine the extent of damage done to HM’s brain.  Method: Performed an MRI on HM.  Finding: All of HM’s Hippocampus and Amygdala were removed.  Conclusions: The hippocampus is responsible for the storage of new memories.  Critical Thinking:  Ethical?  Reliable?

20. Homework 1. Select One of the Articles Online and read it in full. 2. Complete a 3-2-1 note guide for the Article. 3: New/Important ideas that were not discussed in class. 2: Pieces of Critical Thinking/Methodological Limitations 1. Question you still have about the Study.

21. Homework for 9/18/2014 1. Explore website below. Pay particular attention to what areas of the brain are responsible for what behaviors in humans. 2. Read the article on HM (and the one on Gage if you want to learn more). 3. As you read, include all the notes in your Connect, Extend, Challenge Chart. Required: A guide to the Functions of the Brain: http://www.traumaticbraininjuryatoz.org/Interactive-Brainhttp://www.traumaticbraininjuryatoz.org/Interactive-Brain Required: Corkin on HM: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/10047050/Henry- Molaison-The-incredible-story-of-the-man-with-no-memory.htmlhttp://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/10047050/Henry- Molaison-The-incredible-story-of-the-man-with-no-memory.html Optional: More on Phineas Gage: http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2006/12/04/the- incredible-case-of-phineas-gage/http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2006/12/04/the- incredible-case-of-phineas-gage/

22. Wrap-Up: Pepper  Be Prepared to answer a question based on the vocabulary and ideas which we have discussed today.

23. Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8) Explain (8) – Detailed account including reasons or causes.

24. Phineas Gage (1848) Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKaDWu2zFG0

25. Phineas Gage (1848) Aim:  To investigate the localisation of function in Phineas Gage’s case of how his brain damage resulted in a change of behaviour. Specifically, Harlow wanted to investigate how the particular brain damage altered his behaviour. Method:  Phineas Gage, a 25-year-old railroad worker in the 19th century who survived the passing of an iron rod through his head/skull. It entered below his left cheek and exited through the top of his skull on the frontal lobe.  J.M Harlow nursed Gage to recovery observing his behaviour. Results:  Harlow observed and studied Gage, having undergone dramatic changes in personality after the injury, which he didn?t show beforehand. Harlow described him as having little restraint, using extremely rude language, and making grand plans for the future, which would be instantly replaced with others. Conclusion:  From Harlow’s study of Phineas Gage, it can be concluded that Gage’s frontal lobes were indeed damaged in the left pre-frontal region, which accounted for his disinhibited behaviour. Harlow’s study exemplifies how different parts of the brain, in this case, the frontal lobe which controls personality, relating back to the theory of localization of function, which is that specific regions of the brain are responsible for different functions. Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8)

26. Broca – “Tan” (1861) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u17_cGmp5L4

27. Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8) Broca – “Tan” (1861) Aim: To investigate the localisation of function in a patient called “Tan.” Broca wanted to investigate Tan’s unusually language ability/capability by studying his brain. Method: Broca studied a patient over a number of years (as it was a longitudinal study), known as “Tan,” because it was one of the few sounds he could make. After Tan died, Broca conducted a post-mortem autopsy on this patient (and several others) to figure out what part of the brain caused his or similar conditions. Results: After performing the autopsy, he now had evidence that damage to a specific area of the brain was responsible for the loss of ability to produce coherent speech. This area became known as Broca’s area. The effects of damage to this part of the brain can most easily be observed in the speech of stroke victims, many of whom are temporarily or permanently unable to produce language, a condition known as Broca’s aphasia. Conclusion: Broca concluded that the area named after him (Broca’s area) is responsible for an impairment of language in a person. Through this study, new understanding and research had arised of “localised functions? of different parts of the brain, as a result of this finding from early research into the brain by scientists such as Broca.

28. Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8) Study 3: Wernicke (1874) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dKTdMV6cOZw

29. Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8) Wernicke (1874) Aim:  To investigate the localisation of function in patients with brain damage.  Like Broca, Wernicke wanted to investigate another speech/language and comprehension disorder, in which he believed, resulted from a different area than Broca’s area responsible for the comprehension of speech. Method:  Wernicke worked in a similar fashion to Broca, by noting behaviour and conducting post-mortem autopsies to locate brain damage after patients had died, particularly in stroke victims. Results:  After performing the autopsies, Wernicke concluded that there was a section of the brain which was responsible for the comprehension of speech.  The area later became known as Wernicke’s area.  Individuals with this type of aphasia might have problems understanding the speech of others or might substitute wrong words into planned phrases.  He now had evidence that damage to Wernicke’s area was responsible for the loss of ability to comprehend and understand speech, but still being able to speak. Conclusion:  Through this study, Wernicke concluded that the area named after him (Wernicke’s area) is responsible for an impairment of comprehending/understanding language.  Through studies like Wernicke and Broca’s, it became clear that specific parts of the brain were responsible for specific human activities and behaviour.  However, it was still very difficult to find ways to investigate this further, as cases like these were usually rare.  Furthermore, people could not be operated on as it is deemed to be unethical.

30. Raine et al. (1997) Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8)

31. Raine et al. (1997) Aims: The aim of the experiment was to discover (using PET scans) if murderers who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) to show evidence of brain abnormalities (by observing the cortical and subcortical parts of the brain) Was to compare the functioning of various brain structures between NGRI'S and normal subjects using PET scanning technologies Variables: The independent variable in this study was whether the participant was a NGRI or not. The dependent variable was the PET scan results between the controls and the NGRIs. Controlled: 1 for each subject matched for age / sex schizophrenics with non-murderer schizophrenics all controls screened for mental/physical health) Methods:  41 participants (39 male, 2 female) who pleaded not guilty for reasons of insanity (average age of 34.3  Matched with 41 participants (controls) was selected based on sex, age and matched to a NGRI participant  Each participant was injected with a glucose tracer (bonds to substances like glucose) (for PET scans)  As the brain uses substances like glucose (as energy) the areas of the brain that are most active absorb it  The glucose is broken down but the radioactive materials remain and it emits positively charged particles called positrons, which are picked up by the scan  This information can be read by the computer, producing coloured images on the level of activity throughout the brains  They had to perform tasks requiring them to detect target signals for 32 minutes  Compared level of activity (glucose metabolism) in the right and left hemispheres of the brains and the control participants Results:  Less activity in the parietal and pre-frontal cortex of the brain of those participants charged with murder  More activity in the occipital areas and no difference in their temporal areas  Group 1 (those charged with murder):  Inability to grasp long-term implications of a situation  Inappropriate emotional expression  Lack of activity in the amygdala - indicating that violence was due to unusual emotional responses (e.g. lack of fear) Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8)

32. Raine et al. (1997) Evaluation: Strengths:  A large sample was used with many controls to rule out alternative effects on brain activity.  Previous findings on brain structures involved in violence are supported and new findings revealed. Limitations:  The PET scan method can lack precision, as the findings apply only to a subgroup of violent offenders (not to other types of violence or crime) and caution in the interpretation of the findings is needed, which need to be replicated.  The findings do not mean violence is caused by biology alone (other social, psychological and situational factors are involved). It does not demonstrate that the murderers are not responsible for their actions.  It does not mean PET scans can diagnose murderers and do not say whether the brain abnormalities are a cause or effect of behaviour.  No control over the level of violence used in the murder.  Brain scans can be difficult to interpret.  Ethical implications of socially sensitive research. Conclusion:  Raine et al's study on NGRI's illustrated localisation of function  Differences were found in the amygdala and corpus callosum of the NGRI's, amongst various structures, suggesting differences in their experience of emotion of fear and their inability to contemplate consequences of their actions  The use of this new technology enables psychologists to see the functioning structures of the brain whilst performing specific tasks  This hence allowed Raine to compare the functions of various brain regions, effectively showing changes in these areas in NGRI subjects and how they subsequently affect subjects' functioning Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8)

33. Sperry (1968) Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (8) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aCv4K5aStdU

34. [AIM] Investigate behavioural, psychological and neurological consequences when the left and right hemisphere of the brain is disconnected. [PROCEDURE] Subjects were patients who had deconnection surgery to stop epileptic seizure. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. They were given a series of tests. Test one Visual information is presented to the left or right side for 1/10th of a second. Eyes will not have time to readjust hence stimulus on the right will be received by the left hemisphere, vise versa. Test two Present tactile (touch) stimulus to the left or right side. Screen is used to cover and remove visual identification. Stimulus felt on the left side will be received on the right hemisphere, vise versa. [FINDINGS] Object shown on the left side will only be recognized when its shown on the left side again, vise versa. Only objects shown to the right visual field can be named verbally or written down. Objects shown to the left visual field cannot be named. Subjects were shown a Dollar Sign on the left and a Question Mark on the right. They were asked to draw what they see with their left hand (the cannot see their left hand), subjects drew a Dollar Sign. When asked what they had just drawn, they would tell the experimenter “A Question Mark”. If an object was felt by the left hand, it can only be recognized by the left hand again. [CONCLUSIONS ] Brain function is localised. Speech and writing comprehension happens in the left hemisphere. Processing of image and visuals happen in the right hemisphere. There is a different visual perception and memory storage in each hemisphere. [EVALUATION] Made use of patients who underwent hemisphere disconnection surgery as a cure for epileptic seizure, bypassed ethical guidelines of needing to physically harm the subject (even with consent). Natural experiment, high in ecological validity. Sperry (1968) – Hemisphere disconnection and unity in conscious awareness