1. Mr. Lajos Papp The British International School, Budapest 2014/2015

2. 5.1 Evidence for evolution Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change. Acquired characteristics: develop during lifetime. Heritable characteristics: passed from parent to offspring.

3. The fossil record provides evidence for evolution. Fossil record: the remains or imprints of the organisms from earlier geological periods preserved in sedimentary rock. The sequence in which fossils appear matches the sequence in which they would be expected to evolve.

4. Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial selection can cause evolution. The change has been achieved simply by repeatedly selecting for and breeding the individuals most suited to human uses. This process is called artificial selection.

5. The effectiveness of artificial selection is shown by the considerable changes that have occurred. It shows that selection can cause evolution, but it does not prove the evolution of species has actually occurred naturally, or that the mechanism for evolution is natural selection.

6. Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in structure when there are differences in function.

7. Adaptive radiation describes a rapid evolutionary diversification of a single ancestral lineage. It occurs when members of a single species occupy a variety of niches with different environmental selection pressures.

8. Consequently, members evolve different morphological adaptations as a result of natural selection. Adaptive radiation results in speciation (many species from an ancestral line) and may be further enhanced by reproductive isolation.

10. Homologous structures: are parts of the body that are similar in structure to other species' comparative parts. The more closely the organisms are related, the more similar the homologous structures between organisms.

11. Most examples of homologous structures revolve around the limbs of the species being compared. The bone structure within those limbs are similar between closely related species.

12. Many mammals have similar limb structures. The flipper of a whale, the wing of a bat, and the leg of a cat are all very similar to the human arm.

13. All of the mentioned species have a large upper arm bone (the humerus on the human) and the lower part of the limb is made up of two bones - a larger bone on one side (the radius in humans) and a smaller bone on the other side (the ulna in humans).

14. All of the species also have a collection of smaller bones in the "wrist" area (these are called carpal bones in humans) that lead into the long "fingers" or phalanges.

15. Even though the bone structure in these limbs of the mammals are very similar, the function of the limb itself is very different. The homologous limbs can be used for flying, swimming, walking, or everything humans do with their arms.

16. These functions evolved through natural selection as the common ancient ancestor underwent speciation to make all of the diversity we have on Earth today.

17. The pentadactyl limb of the vertebrate: a) Humerus b) Radius c) Ulna In each example the bones are modified and adapted to the locomotion of the animal.

20. Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution. The process is called speciation. The importance of interbreeding (have evolved into separate species).

21. Continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations matches the concept of gradual divergence. The process of speciation is slow, there is no sudden change. The problem of deciding if that population represents a different species or not.

22. Application Development of melanistic insects in polluted areas. http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/pepperedmot h.html http://peppermoths.weebly.com/

25. Application Comparison of the pentadactyl limb of mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles with different methods of locomotion.

26. 5.2 Natural selection Natural selection can only occur if there is variation among members of the same species. Variation (different features) within the population. Genetic variation.

27. Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction cause variation between individuals in a species. Mutation: change in genetic material. Meiosis: new combinations. Sexual reproduction: different parents.

28. Adaptations are characteristics that make an individual suited to its environment and way of life. They develop over time / generations (not during an individual’s lifetime).

29. Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. Comparing breeding rates. It leads to a struggle for existence (survival of the fittest).

30. Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring while the less well adapted tend to die or produce fewer offspring. Individuals that reproduce pass on their characteristics to their offspring.

31. Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that make individuals better adapted and decreases the frequency of other characteristics leading to changes within the species.

32. Application Changes in beaks of finches on Daphne major. http://leslielivingenvironment.blogspot.hu/2010_04_01_ archive.html

34. Application Evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

35. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria Antibiotics are widely used in medicine to kill pathogenic bacteria. Bacteria have very short generation times; they are haploid and can reproduce sexually. These features enable bacteria to evolve rapidly in response to changes in their environment.

36. With the widespread use of antibiotics over the last fifty years, many bacteria have evolved cellular mechanisms enabling them to grow in the presence of antibiotics.

37. 5.3 Classification of biodiversity The binomial system of names for species is universal among biologists and has been agreed and developed at a series of congresses.

38. When species are discovered they are given scientific names using the binomial system.

39. The binomial system of nomenclature was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753. It is based on the idea that every species has a Latin name, made up of two parts.

40. The first part is the name of the genus; the second part specifies the species. The name should be printed in italics or underlined and the first part is capitalised. Closely related animals, e.g., lion and tiger have the same generic name (Panthera) but different species name (P. leo, P. tigris).

41. The generic name is singular and is not used with the definite article. The species name should always be written out in full when first mentioned e.g., Escherichia coli; thereafter the genus can be abbreviated to its initial letter e.g., E. coli.

42. Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa. There are eight levels in the hierarchy of taxa (singular: taxon) – domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. Going up the hierarchy, the taxa include larger and larger numbers of species, which share fewer and fewer features.

43. All organisms are classified into three domains. Viruses are not classified in any of the three domains.

45. The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.

47. There are four kingdoms of eukaryotes: plants, animals, fungi and protoctists. Main characteristics in each phylum.

48. Application Classification of one plant and one animal species from domain to species level. page 262 (optional)

49. In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher taxa consist of all the species that have evolved from one common ancestral species.

50. Natural classification is based on the common ancestor. Versus artificial classification: plants and fungi belonged to the same kingdom (they share the same characteristic, the cell wall). New molecular methods have caused major changes.

51. Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new evidence shows that a previous taxon contains species that have evolved from different ancestral species.

52. Natural classifications help in identification of species and allow the prediction of characteristics shared by species within a group.

53. Application Recognition features of bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta. page 266 These phyla belong to Plant Kingdom.

54. Plant characteristics: - photosynthetic - chlorophyll - cellulose cell wall - vacuoles permanent - store starch Classification of the major plant phyla based on external observable structures:

55. Phylum: Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts and hornworts) 1. stems radial symmetry (mosses) 2. stems bilateral symmetry (liverworts) 3. no true leaves, stems and roots 4. no cuticle 5. reproductive structure are called sporangium which are on long stalks with capsules on end

56. Phylum: Filicinophyta (ferns) 1. have an underground stem (rhizome) 2. roots, non woody stems 3. divided leaves 4. height up to 20m 5. reproduction: sporangia (sori) contain reproductive spores

57. - sexual reproduction: monoecious (both male and female reproductive units (conifer cones) on the same plant, male non motile gametes often with air bladders for water / air dispersal, female ovule on cone scale.

58. Phylum: Coniferophyta (conifers and pines) 1. trees, shrubs 2. woody stems 3. waxy narrow needle like leaves 4. vascular system 5. produce seeds found in cones

59. Phylum: Angiospermophyta (flowering plants and grasses) 1. roots, stems, leaves, flowers 2. vascular bundles (xylem / phloem) 3. waxy cuticle

60. 4. annual or perennial up to 100m 5. reproduction: ovules in an enclosed structure, pollen grains produced from anthers, variety of pollen transfer vectors.

61. Application Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platylhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda and chordata. page 267 These phyla belong to Animal Kingdom.

62. The Kingdom of Animals is classified according to these characteristics: 1. heterotrophic 2. no cell walls

63. 3. - no vacuoles 4. - no chlorophyll 5. - store glycogen

64. The six phyla are classified according to features such as the body plant, the opening for mouth and anus and the method of support.

65. Phylum: Porifera (sponges) 1. do not move around. (sessile) 2. live in water. 3. simple body. 4. there is no mouth or anus.

66. Phylum: Cnidaria (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals) 1. have stinging cells. 2. radial symmetry.

67. 3. jellyfish are mobile organisms. Sea anemones are sessile organisms. 4. single entrance that serves the cavity. 5. corals secrete a CaCO 3 skeleton.

68. Phylum: Platyhelminthes (flatworms) 1. live in water or damp environment. 2. bilateral symmetry. 3. one entrance to 'gut'. 4. largely parasitic includes flukes.

69. Phylum: Annelida (segmented worms) 1. bilateral symmetry. 2. body divided into ringed segments.

70. 3. mouth connected via gut to a separate anus. 4. bristles from body which help movement. 5. many marine forms but also terrestrial species usually soil burrowing.

71. Phylum: Mollusca (snails, slugs and octopus) - bilateral symmetry with significant modification. - body plan has three major features:

72. 1. foot, a muscular structure used for movement and burrowing. 2. central visceral mass containing all the organ structures (separate mouth and anus) 3. mantle, a folded membrane structure that can surround other tissues and create a cavity containing a gill; the mantle frequently secretes a calcareous shell.

73. Phylum: Arthropoda (insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions, millipedes) 1. three layer body plant with bilateral symmetry. 2. hard exoskeleton composed of chitin.

74. 3. segmented body. 4. jointed appendages (legs).

75. Application Recognition features of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish. page 268 These classes belong to Phylum Chordata.

76. Skills Construction of dichotomous keys for use in identifying specimens. Handout.

77. Identification of plants and animals in taxonomy is frequently aided by using a dichotomous key, a device constructed from a series of highly organized statements arranged into couplets. A couplet consists of two descriptions which should represent mutually exclusive choices. Both choices are read and compared with the specimen to be identified.

79. Guidance Archaea, eubacteria and eukaryote should be used for the three domains. Members of these domains should be referred to as archaeans, bacteria and eukaryotes.

80. Guidance Students should know which plant phyla have vascular tissue, but other internal details are not required. Recognition features expected for the selected animal phyla are those that are most useful in distinguishing the groups from each other and full descriptions of the characteristics of each phylum are not needed.

81. Guidance Viruses are not classified as living organisms.

82. 5.4 Cladistics A clade is a group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor. Birds: 10,000 species forming a clade. Maidenhair tree: the only member of the clade.

84. Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained from the base sequences of a gene or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein.

85. Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a positive correlation between the number of differences between two species and the time since they diverged from a common ancestor.

86. Mutations occur at a constant rate so they can be used as a molecular clock. The number of the differences in sequence can be used to deduce how long ago species split from a common ancestor.

88. http://www.geneticorigins.org/mito/media2.html

89. Traits can be analogous or homologous. Homologous structures: pentadactyl limbs. Analogous structures: wings.

91. Cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence in clades.

93. Evidence from cladistics has shown that classifications of some groups based on structure did not correspond with the evolutionary origins of a group or species. Reclassification based on new evidence.

94. Application Cladograms including humans and other primates.

98. Application Reclassification of the figwort family using evidence from cladistics.

99. Taxonomists investigated the evolutionary origins of the figwort family using cladistics. Base sequences of three chloroplast genes were compared. Major reclassification has been carried out.

101. Skills Analysis of cladograms to deduce evolutionary relationships.