2. Thinking Thinkingcognition Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating.

3. Thinking Thinking Thinking involves a number of mental activities: I.Concepts II.Problem solving III.Decision making IV.Judgment formation

4. I. Concepts mental grouping o The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. o Ex: o Ex: there are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of a chair.

5. Category Hierarchies concepts We also organize concepts into category hierarchies.

6. Category Hierarchies concepts We also organize concepts into category hierarchies.

7. Development of Concepts concepts o We also form some concepts with definitions. o For example: a triangle has three sides. concepts o Mostly, we form concepts with mental images or typical examples (prototypes). o For example, a robin is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not. Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image)

8. II. Problem Solving Problem solving strategies include: 1.Algorithms 2.Heuristics 3.Insight 4.Trial and Error (Slides on #1-3…No slide for #4. Trial and Error is “no duh.”)

9. 1. Algorithms o Algorithms, which are very time consuming, are a step-by-step process to exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. o Computers use algorithms. S P L O Y O C H Y G If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face ~907,200 possibilities.

10. 2. Heuristics o Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. o A “rule-of-thumb” strategy o Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.

11. 2. Heuristics Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems. S P L O Y O C H Y G S P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y Put the ‘Y’ at the end, and see if the word begins to make sense.

12. Representativeness Heuristic how similar the aspects are to the prototypes o Judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to the prototypes the person holds in their mind. o Like thinking everyone from Harvard is preppy, or someone with glasses is nerdy, or a blonde is not smart. o If I tell you that Sonia Dara is a Sports Illustrated swimsuit model, you would make certain quick judgments (heuristics) about her…like about her interests or intelligence. o She is an economics major at Harvard University. Who went to Harvard? Dan (below) is a smart dude, but did not go to Harvard (but he looks like he did).

13. Availability Heuristic examples of similar situations that initially come to mind o Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind. o Vivid examples in the news often cause an availability heuristic. Which place would you be more scared of getting mugged or even murdered? The Bronx, NY Gary, Indiana The crime rate of Gary, Indiana is MUCH higher than the Bronx. But when you think of crime, which town comes to mind?

14. Heuristics can lead to Overconfidence… o Our confidence is not a good indicator of how right we are. o Belief Perseverance o Belief Perseverance- maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong. o Belief Bias o Belief Bias- People will tend to accept any and all conclusions that fit in with their systems of belief

15. 3. Insight o Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight. o This is sometimes referred to as the “Aha” moment… Grande using boxes to obtain food

16. The “Aha!” Experience: Rebuses “cut above the rest” “forgive and forget” “tongue in cheek” “crossroads” “backward glance” “P A I N-less operation”

17. Obstacles in Solving Problems

18. Obstacles… o Fixation: inability o Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. o impedes problem solving. functional fixedness o An example of fixation is functional fixedness o the inability to see a new use for an object.

19. Obstacles… o Mental Set rigidity o a.k.a. rigidity o The tendency to fall into established thought patterns. o Some examples are….

20. Other terms to know for Problem Solving

21. Framing o 90% of the population will be saved with this medication…..or o 10% of the population will die despite this medication. o You should not drink more than two drinks per day….or o You should not drink more than 730 drinks a year. Look at the following question and think about how the question is worded (may effect the way it is answered). o What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean? o The way a problem is presented can drastically effect the way we view it. o Those who understand the power of framing can use it to influence our decisions.

22. Creativity o Capacity to use info and/or abilities in a new and original way. o Convergent Thinking o ability to give the “correct” answer to standard questions that do not require significant creativity o for instance, most tasks in school and standardized multiple-choice tests for intelligence. Divergent Thinking o versus Divergent Thinking o thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

23. Exaggerated Fear exaggerated fear o The opposite of having overconfidence is having an exaggerated fear about what may happen. o Such fears may be unfounded. o Ex: o Ex: the 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel and fear of anyone that looked like a “Muslim” due to fear.

24. III. Making Decision IV. Forming Judgments Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning.

25. Language

26. Language can be…..

27. Language Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others. Language transmits culture.

28. In Language… phoneme unit of sound o …a phoneme is the smallest distinctive unit of sound. English uses about 40 o Of the 869 phonemes identified among 500 languages, English uses about 40. o Sign language also has phoneme-like building blocks defined by hand shapes and movements. morpheme carries meaning o …a morpheme is the smallest unit that carries meaning; o may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix or suffix)… o “ed” at the end of a word means past tense.

29. Grammar o The rules of a language. o Syntax: o Syntax: the order of words in a language. Is this the White House or the House White?

30. Language Development o Children learn their native languages much before learning to add 2+2. o We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500 words a year o amassing 60,000 words by the time we graduate from high school. Time Life Pictures/ Getty Images

31. When do we learn language?

33. How do we learn language?

34. Social Learning Theory o B.F. Skinner o Baby may imitate a parent. reinforced they keep saying the word o If they are reinforced they keep saying the word. o Operant learning punished, they stop saying the word o If they are punished, they stop saying the word.

35. Noam Chomsky’s Theory (Nativist Theory) o We learn language too quickly for it to be through reinforcement and punishment. o Inborn universal language acquisition device