1. Approaches to Social Research Paradigms & the Construction of Truth Week 2 (Day 3): Emily Martin reading.

2. Terms you should be familiar with: Positivism Empiricism Inductive Deductive Subjective Objective Intersubjective Macro, meso, micro Level of analysis Generalizability Quantitative Qualitative Reification Concept Operationalize Verifiable Scientism Reflexive

3. What is science? The word “science” comes from the Latin “scientia,” which means knowledge.. As noted last time, scientific knowledge is is evaluated based on the following two areas: – Logical structure of knowledge (theories or laws) (Product) – Methods and logic of inquiry (process)

4. Example of the interrelationship btwn theory and method Emile Durkheim’s famous 1897 study of suicide: – His theory: that when a society has high levels of Anomie, this will create high rates of suicide. – Operationalization of anomie: Marital status (single vs. married) Religion (protestant vs. catholic) Education (literate vs. non-literate)

5. Scientific vs. Non-scientific questions A question is scientific if it can be subjected to empirically verifiable observations. Examples of scientific questions: – Why do some people look at pornographic images? – Are certain types of organizations more efficient than others? – Why do people tend to marry people of a similar race? (a phenomemon known as “homogamy”) These questions deal with how and why regular patterns of events occur. Examples of Non-scientific questions: – Is pornography morally wrong? – Should efficiency be valued over morale? – Are interracial relationships contrary to God’s will? These questions deal with what is “desirable”

6. Scientific questions, cont. Both philosophers and scientists ask about the “why” of things. – To the philosopher, “why” questions related to questions of morality, existence, or ultimate causality. – To the scientist, “why” questions are much more specific. They are shorthand for: “What is the relationship between …… and …….”, or “under what conditions does …… occur?” In short, Scientific questions are those that can by answered by identifying observable events. Brief class writing: think of a phenomenon that you are curious about, and transfer it into two questions: one scientific question and one non-scientific question. Once you’re done, discuss w/ your neighbor.

7. Generalizability & Predictablity Once you have theory and data, two more criteria are added to the production of scientific knowledge Generalizability – The more empirical support one has for a claim, the more one can generalize about a given population. Predictability – Scientific theories are those that can be proven wrong. They are If-then statements; statements of cause and effect.

8. Inductive vs. Deductive logic Inductive logic – When observations create theory (the best known systematic example of this is a method called “Grounded Theory”). Inductive logic is what one uses to create theory. Deductive logic – When theory drives one’s observations. Deductive logic is what one uses to test an existing theory. Both can be equally scientific.

9. Quantitative vs. Qualitative methods Let’s revisit the handout on the Epistemology of qualitative and quantitative methods. Often these two general approaches to research are too simplistically dichotomized. The utility or value of each method depends upon the question you are interested in.

10. Example of the value of multiple research methodologies Criminologists have found a statistically significant correlation between unemployment and criminality. What research methods might provide a more in- depth understanding of this connection?

11. Class exercise Collect several questions from the class Divide into groups, w/ each group focusing on one question. Identify 2-3 possible explanations (theories) for this question. – Identify the key concepts you will be working with What methods might you use to find the answer to this question (and to test these theories)? – How will you operationalize your key concepts? How will you make sure your findings are accurate? What problems might you encounter?

12. Material and cultural constraints on scientific knowledge Discuss Martin’s article “The egg and the sperm” – How has the story of the egg and the sperm changed over time? – What hasn’t changed? – How does this case illustrate the connection btwn. scientific knowledge and mainstream culture? – Martin challenges us to “Wake up sleeping metaphors” in science. How can this be done? How do you know which metaphors to “wake up”? What about it you don’t even recognize something as a metaphor?