1. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Higher Education Jazan University Faculty of Arts and Humanities Department of English Deanship of Distance and Electronic Learning Translation 1 Code: 231 Eng.

2. Towards a Definition of Translation 1- A text can be defined as a piece of spoken or written passage. 2- The language we translate from is called Source Language(SL) 3- The language we translate to is called Target Language (TL). 4- Translation is a Process. 5-The relation between SL and TL is that of equivalence (of meaning and style) 6- The translation process requires syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic knowledge of SL as well as analytical processing of SL.

3. What a translator is expected to know? A translator should ask him/herself a number of questions; 1- How do the clauses hold together?(Cohesion) Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations that provide links between various parts of a text. These relations or ties organize a text by requiring the reader to understand words and expressions by reference to other words and expressions in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Moreover, cohesion is seen as a nonstructural, semantic relation, as for example, between a pronoun and its antecedent in a preceding sentence, expressing at each stage in the discourse the point of context with what has gone before.

4. A cohesive device is the interpretive link between, for example, a pronoun and its antecedent, or two lexically linked noun phrases, or a conjunction, and a series of such ties (having the same referent) is referred to as a ‘cohesive chain’. Examples: 1- Ali is a student. He comes from Jazan. antecedent pronoun 2-There is a boy climbing the tree. The idiot’s going to fall if he doesn’t take care. noun phrase 1 noun phrase2 3-It is getting late. Therefore, I must leave. conjunction

5. 2- How do propositions hold together? (coherence) Like cohesion, coherence is a network of relations which organize and create a text: cohesion is the network of surface relations which link words and expressions to other words and expressions in a text, and coherence is the network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface text. Both concern the way stretches of language are connected to each other by virtue of lexical and grammatical dependencies. In the case of coherence, they are connected by virtue of conceptual or meaning dependencies as perceived by language users.

6. Accordingly, cohesion is the surface expression of coherent relations, that it is a device for making conceptual explicit relations. For example, a conjunction such as ‘therefore’ which is stated in No:3 above may express a conceptual notion of ‘reason’ or ‘ consequence’. However if the reader cannot perceive an underlying semantic relation of ‘reason’ or ‘consequence’ between the propositions connected by ‘therefore’, he will not be able to make sense of the text and it will not ‘cohere’ for the reader.

7. A violation of the coherence standard can be shown in these examples: a- I went outside. I took a shower. I woke up. b- She had a cup of coffee. Coffee is grown in many parts of the world. The world is becoming a small village. The village is located near the mountains. Mountain-climbing is a very dangerous sport. Sport gears can be very expensive.

8. 3-Why does the speaker/ writer produce this? While cohesion and coherence are to a large extent text- centered, intentionality is user- centered. A text- producer normally seeks to achieve a purpose or goal (e.g. persuasion, instruction, request, information, etc.) based on a given plan. Obviously, cohesion and coherence are taken into consideration while planning and executing one’s plan. Speakers or writers vary in the degree of success in planning and achieving their purposes.

9. Look at these examples and see if you can find out the writers intentions: 1- In the haste of trying to come to the meeting, I must have forgotten some of the important document I was intending to show you. Without those documents, we may have to schedule another meeting. Therefore, and in order to make better use of our time, I strongly recommend that this meeting be postponed to next Thursday or any other time of your preference. I am really sorry for any inconvenience this may have caused to you. 2- I am sorry to inform you that I did not bring some of the documents that we need in the meeting. Ahmed said that he will be ten to fifteen minutes late. I called your secretary and confirmed today’s meeting. I took the liberty of inviting Khalid to the dinner party tonight.

10. 4- How does the reader or hearer take it? (Accountability) Acceptability is very much sensitive to the social activity the text is fulfilling. A legal contract does not leave much room for inference. It contains what, otherwise, is called redundancies. Poetic language will be viewed as such because it calls on for inferences. Acceptability is very much affected by the reader’s social and cultural background. For instance, if you ask a western person about the health of his family this may understood as being intrusive but in our culture this may be seen as a gesture of friendliness and solidarity. In other cultures, a person may avoid talking about that matter saying: “I am too busy to talk about it right now”.

11. 5- What does it tell us?(Informativity) A text has to contain some new information. A text is informative if it transfers new information, or information that was unknown before. Informativity should be seen as a gradable phenomenon. The degree of informativity varies from participant to another in the communicative event. Situationality contributes to the informativity of the text. A book written in 1950 has an informativity that was highly appropriate then.

12. 6- What is the text for? (Situationality) A text is relevant to a particular social or pragmatic context. Situationality is related to real time and place. Communicative partners as well as their attitudinal state are important for the text’s meaning, purpose and intended effect. Scientific texts share a common Situationality, while religious texts have different situationalities across languages and cultures. For example, a Christian listening to a Muslim sermon will not perceive the same meaning and intended effect as a Muslim does.

13. 7- What other texts does this one resemble?(intertextuality) A text is related to other texts. Intertextuality refers to the relationship between a given text and other relevant texts encountered in prior experience. These include textual conventions and textual expectations. Some textual features have become more and more international, e.g. medical texts. They exhibit many features that are English-like, even if they are written in another language like Arabic.

14. Defining Translation The German linguist and translation theorist Werner Koller (1998) defines translation as: “… the result of a text- processing activity, by means of which a source language text is transposed into a target – language text. Between the resultant in TL and the source text in SL there exists a relationship, which can be designated as translational, or equivalence relation.”

15. Eight Types of Translation 1- Word-for–word translation: In this type the word order is preserved and words are translated singly by their most common meaning, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of this type is either to understand the mechanism of SL or to construe (understand) a difficult text as a pre- translation process. Here is an example of such a type: The big dog is chasing the small cat. ال كبير كلب يطارد ال صغير قط

16. 2- Literal Translation In this type of translation the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre- translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved. Fire fighters managed to extinguish the fire in time تمكن مقاتلوا الحرائق من اخماد الحريق في الوقت ( المناسب )

17. 3- Free translation In free translation the actual wording and organization of the SL is sacrificed in order to produce a more natural TL text. Leaving his house early every morning, George catches the bus and spends the journey to his work in another city reading the morning newspaper جورج يستقل الحافلة مبكرا كل صباح ويقضي الرحلة إلى عمله الذي يقع في مدينة أخرى وهو يقرا جريدة الصباح

18. 4- Idiomatic translation It reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances or slight differences of meaning by preferring colloquialism idioms. Global warming الاحتباس الحراري

19. 5- Faithful translation A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It ‘transfers’ culture words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’ (deviation from SL norms) in translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realization of the SL writer. The following lines are quoted from William Shakespeare’s Sonnet xiii Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? من ذا يقارن حسنك المغري بصيف قد تجلى Thou art more lovely and more temperate وفنون سحرك قد بدت في ناظري أسمى وأغلى

20. 6- Semantic translation Semantic translation differs from faithful translation differs from faithful translation only when it accounts for the aesthetic value (the beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text, compromising on meaning where appropriate so that no assonance, word play or repetition jars (sounds different, strange or non-harmonic) in the finished version. It does not rely on cultural equivalence and makes very small concessions to the readership. While faithful translation is dogmatic, semantic translation is more flexible. The following statement is an example of semantic translation. Charity begins at home الأقربون أولى بالمعروف

21. 7- Adaptive translation This is the freest form of translation mainly used for plays and poetry. Adaptive translation preserves themes, characters, and plots. The SL culture is converted to TL culture and the text is rewritten. The following is a translator’s account of an adaptive translation experience: فلما كانت كتب الأدب اللازمة للمدارس الأولية ٬ لتأليف قلوب التلامذة الأبية٬ وكان أسهلها مايدخل عليهم بالحكايات والقصص المسليات٬ اخترت كتابا من أشهر ما في اللغة الفرنساوية٬ وترجمته باللغة العربية٬...وأخرجته عن الطباع الافرنجية٬وجعلته على عوايد الأمة العربية.

22. 8- Communicative translation Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both language and content are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. Communicative translation is social, concentrates on the message and force of the text, tends to under-translate, to be simple, clear and brief, and is always written in a natural and resourceful style. This statement is an example of communicative translation. He must be sent to justice. يجب أن يرسل للقصاص