1. Speciation and Extinction Rates

2. The history of Earth as been shaped by the rise and fall of groups of organisms Concept 23.2: The rise and fall of groups of organisms reflect differences in speciation and extinction rates

3. Figure 23.5 Common ancestor of lineages A and B Millions of years ago Lineage B Lineage A † † † † † † 4321 0

4. Plate Tectonics At three points in time, the landmasses of Earth have formed a supercontinent: 1.1 billion, 600 million, and 250 million years ago According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth’s crust is composed of plates floating on Earth’s mantle Continental drift is the movement in the mantle that causes plates to move over time

5. Figure 23.6 Crust Mantle Outer core Inner core

6. Continental drift occurs at a rate of a few millimeters per year Oceanic and continental plates can separate, slide past each other, or collide Interactions between plates cause the formation of mountains and islands and earthquakes

8. Figure 23.7 Eurasian Plate Philippine Plate Australian Plate Indian Plate Arabian Plate African Plate Antarctic Plate Scotia Plate Nazca Plate South American Plate Pacific Plate Caribbean Plate North American Plate Juan de Fuca Plate Cocos Plate

9. Consequences of Continental Drift Formation of the supercontinent Pangaea about 250 million years ago had many effects A deepening of ocean basins A reduction in shallow water habitat A colder and drier climate inland

10. Figure 23.8 Collision of India with Eurasia Present-day continents Laurasia and Gondwana landmasses The supercontinent Pangaea Gondwana Laurasia Antarctica Eurasia Africa India Australia North America South America Madagascar Cenozoic Mesozoic Paleozoic 251 mya 135 mya 65.5 mya 45 mya Present

11. Continental drift can cause a continent’s climate to change as it moves north or south Separation of landmasses can lead to allopatric speciation

12. Figure 23.9 Millions of years ago (mya) Mantellinae (Madagascar only): 100 species Rhacophorinae (India/southeast Asia): 310 species India Madagascar 56 mya88 mya 11 2 2 80 60 40 20 0

13. Mass Extinctions The fossil record shows that most species that have ever lived are now extinct Extinction can be caused by changes to a species’ environment At times, the rate of extinction has increased dramatically and caused a mass extinction Mass extinction is the result of disruptive global environmental changes

14. The “Big Five” Mass Extinction Events In each of the five mass extinction events, more than 50% of Earth’s species became extinct

15. Figure 23.10 Time (mya) Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic 54248844441635929925120014565.5 0 EOSDCPTrJPCN Q 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 Era Period Total extinction rate (families per million years): Number of families: 0 5 10 15 20 25

16. Is a Sixth Mass Extinction Under Way? Scientists estimate that the current rate of extinction is 100 to 1,000 times the typical background rate Extinction rates tend to increase when global temperatures increase Data suggest that a sixth, human-caused mass extinction is likely to occur unless dramatic action is taken

17. Figure 23.12 Mass extinctions CoolerWarmer Relative temperature 012−2−2−1−1−3−3 −2−2 −1−1 0 1 2 3 Relative extinction rate of marine animal genera 34

18. Consequences of Mass Extinctions Mass extinction can alter ecological communities and the niches available to organisms It can take 5–100 million years for diversity to recover following a mass extinction The type of organisms residing in a community can change with mass extinction For example, the percentage of marine predators increased after the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions Mass extinction can pave the way for adaptive radiations

19. Figure 23.13 Time (mya) Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic 54248844441635929925120014565.50 EOSDCPTrJPCN Q Era Period 0 10 20 30 40 50 Predator genera (%) Permian mass extinction Cretaceous mass extinction

20. Adaptive Radiations Adaptive radiation is the evolution of many diversely adapted species from a common ancestor Adaptive radiations may follow Mass extinctions The evolution of novel characteristics The colonization of new regions

21. Example of Adaptive Radiations Mammals underwent an adaptive radiation after the extinction of terrestrial dinosaurs The disappearance of dinosaurs (except birds) allowed for the expansion of mammals in diversity and size

22. Figure 23.14 Ancestral mammal ANCESTRAL CYNODONT Time (millions of years ago) 250200150100500 Eutherians (5,010 species) Marsupials (324 species) Monotremes (5 species)

23. Regional Adaptive Radiations Adaptive radiations can occur when organisms colonize new environments with little competition The Hawaiian Islands are one of the world’s great showcases of adaptive radiation Animation: Allometric Growth