1. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 1 Chapter 12 Design for Six Sigma The Management & Control of Quality, 7e

2. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 2 DFSS Activities  Concept development, determining product functionality based upon customer requirements, technological capabilities, and economic realities  Design development, focusing on product and process performance issues necessary to fulfill the product and service requirements in manufacturing or delivery  Design optimization, seeking to minimize the impact of variation in production and use, creating a “robust” design  Design verification, ensuring that the capability of the production system meets the appropriate sigma level

3. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 3 Key Idea Like Six Sigma itself, most tools for DFSS have been around for some time; its uniqueness lies in the manner in which they are integrated into a formal methodology, driven by the Six Sigma philosophy, with clear business objectives in mind.

4. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 4 Tools for Concept Development  Concept development – the process of applying scientific, engineering, and business knowledge to produce a basic functional design that meets both customer needs and manufacturing or service delivery requirements.  Quality function deployment (QFD)  Concept engineering

5. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 5 Key Idea Developing a basic functional design involves translating customer requirements into measurable technical requirements and, subsequently, into detailed design specifications.

6. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 6 Quality Function Deployment technical requirements component characteristics process operations quality plan

7. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 7 Key Idea QFD benefits companies through improved communication and teamwork between all constituencies in the value chain, such as between marketing and design, between design and manufacturing, and between purchasing and suppliers.

8. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 8 House of Quality Technical requirements Voice of the customer Relationship matrix Technical requirement priorities Customer requirement priorities Competitive evaluation Interrelationships

9. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 9 Building the House of Quality 1. Identify customer requirements. 2. Identify technical requirements. 3. Relate the customer requirements to the technical requirements. 4. Conduct an evaluation of competing products or services. 5. Evaluate technical requirements and develop targets. 6. Determine which technical requirements to deploy in the remainder of the production/delivery process.

10. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 10 Concept Engineering  Understanding the customer’s environment.  Converting understanding into requirements.  Operationalizing what has been learned.  Concept generation.  Concept selection.

11. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 11 Tools for Design Development  Tolerance design  Design failure mode and effects analysis  Reliability prediction

12. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 12 Key Idea Manufacturing specifications consist of nominal dimensions and tolerances. Nominal refers to the ideal dimension or the target value that manufacturing seeks to meet; tolerance is the permissible variation, recognizing the difficulty of meeting a target consistently.

13. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 13 Tolerance Design  Determining permissible variation in a dimension  Understand tradeoffs between costs and performance

14. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 14 Key Idea Tolerances are necessary because not all parts can be produced exactly to nominal specifications because of natural variations (common causes) in production processes due to the “5 Ms”: men and women, materials, machines, methods, and measurement.

15. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 15 DFMEA  Design failure mode and effects analysis (DFMEA) – identification of all the ways in which a failure can occur, to estimate the effect and seriousness of the failure, and to recommend corrective design actions.

16. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 16

17. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 17 Reliability Prediction  Reliability  Generally defined as the ability of a product to perform as expected over time  Formally defined as the probability that a product, piece of equipment, or system performs its intended function for a stated period of time under specified operating conditions

18. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 18 Types of Failures  Functional failure – failure that occurs at the start of product life due to manufacturing or material detects  Reliability failure – failure after some period of use

19. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 19 Types of Reliability  Inherent reliability – predicted by product design  Achieved reliability – observed during use

20. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 20 Reliability Measurement  Failure rate (l) – number of failures per unit time  Alternative measures  Mean time to failure  Mean time between failures

21. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 21 Cumulative Failure Rate Curve

22. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 22 Key Idea Many electronic components commonly exhibit a high, but decreasing, failure rate early in their lives (as evidenced by the steep slope of the curve), followed by a period of a relatively constant failure rate, and ending with an increasing failure rate.

23. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 23 Failure Rate Curve “Infant mortality period”

24. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 24 Average Failure Rate

25. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 25 Reliability Function  Probability density function of failures f(t) = e - t for t > 0  Probability of failure from (0, T) F(t) = 1 – e - T  Reliability function R(T) = 1 – F(T) = e - T

26. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 26 Series Systems R S = R 1 R 2... R n 12n

27. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 27 Parallel Systems R S = 1 - (1 - R 1 ) (1 - R 2 )... (1 - R n ) 1 2 n

28. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 28 Series-Parallel Systems  Convert to equivalent series system AB C C D RARARARA RBRBRBRB RCRCRCRC RDRDRDRD RCRCRCRC AB C’ C’D RARARARA RBRBRBRB RDRDRDRD R C’ = 1 – (1-R C )(1-R C )

29. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 29 Tools for Design Optimization  Taguchi loss function  Optimizing reliability

30. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 30 Key Idea Design optimization includes setting proper tolerances to ensure maximum product performance and making designs robust, that is, insensitive to variations in manufacturing or the use environment.

31. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 31 Loss Functions loss no loss nominal tolerance loss Traditional View Taguchi’s View

32. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 32 Taguchi Loss Function Calculations Loss function: L(x) = k(x - T) 2 Example: Specification =.500 .020. Failure outside of the tolerance range costs $50 to repair. Thus, 50 = k(.020) 2. Solving for k yields k = 125,000. The loss function is: L(x) = 125,000(x -.500) 2 Expected loss = k(  2 + D 2 ) where D is the deviation from the target.

33. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 33 Optimizing Reliability  Standardization  Redundancy  Physics of failure

34. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 34 Tools for Design Verification  Reliability testing  Measurement systems evaluation  Process capability evaluation

35. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 35 Key Idea Design verification is necessary to ensure that designs will meet customer requirements and can be produced to specifications.

36. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 36 Reliability testing  Life testing  Accelerated life testing  Environmental testing  Vibration and shock testing  Burn-in (component stress testing)

37. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 37 Measurement System Evaluation  Whenever variation is observed in measurements, some portion is due to measurement system error. Some errors are systematic (called bias); others are random. The size of the errors relative to the measurement value can significantly affect the quality of the data and resulting decisions.

38. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 38 Metrology - Science of Measurement  Accuracy - closeness of agreement between an observed value and a standard  Precision - closeness of agreement between randomly selected individual measurements

39. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 39 Repeatability and Reproducibility  Repeatability (equipment variation) – variation in multiple measurements by an individual using the same instrument.  Reproducibility (operator variation) - variation in the same measuring instrument used by different individuals

40. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 40 Repeatability & Reproducibility Studies  Quantify and evaluate the capability of a measurement system  Select m operators and n parts  Calibrate the measuring instrument  Randomly measure each part by each operator for r trials  Compute key statistics to quantify repeatability and reproducibility

41. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 41 Spreadsheet Template

42. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 42 R&R Evaluation  Under 10% error - OK  10-30% error - may be OK  over 30% error - unacceptable

43. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 43 Key Idea One of the most important functions of metrology is calibration — the comparison of a measurement device or system having a known relationship to national standards against another device or system whose relationship to national standards is unknown.

44. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 44 Process Capability  The range over which the natural variation of a process occurs as determined by the system of common causes  Measured by the proportion of output that can be produced within design specifications

45. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 45 Types of Capability Studies  Peak performance study - how a process performs under ideal conditions  Process characterization study - how a process performs under actual operating conditions  Component variability study - relative contribution of different sources of variation (e.g., process factors, measurement system)

46. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 46 Process Capability Study 1. Choose a representative machine or process 2. Define the process conditions 3. Select a representative operator 4. Provide the right materials 5. Specify the gauging or measurement method 6. Record the measurements 7. Construct a histogram and compute descriptive statistics: mean and standard deviation 8. Compare results with specified tolerances

47. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 47 Process Capability specification natural variation (a)(b) natural variation (c)(d)

48. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 48 Key Idea The process capability index, Cp (sometimes called the process potential index), is defined as the ratio of the specification width to the natural tolerance of the process. Cp relates the natural variation of the process with the design specifications in a single, quantitative measure.

49. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 49 Process Capability Index C p = UTL - LTL 6  C pl, C pu } UTL -  3  C pl =  - LTL 3  C pk = min{ C pu =

50. THE MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF QUALITY, 7e, © 2008 Thomson Higher Education Publishing 50 Spreadsheet Template