1. ECON 337: Agricultural Marketing Chad Hart Associate Professor chart@iastate.edu 515-294-9911 Lee Schulz Assistant Professor lschulz@iastate.edu 515-294-3356

2. Livestock Marketing Decisions

3. Where to sell –Type of market –Location When to sell –Weight, grade, costs What to sell –Live or carcass –Value-based

4.  Important Market Functions  Assembly function – a large number of small farms o Feeder cattle o Cull cows  Sorting function o Various frame, grade, and condition o Various weight classes o Intended use/destination Where to Sell

5. Terminal markets –Feeder cattle and fed cattle Auction markets –Feeder cattle, cull cows, fed cattle in fringe areas Direct sales (including private treaty) –Breeding stock, fed cattle and hogs, feeder pigs Hybrid markets –Becoming more common for livestock in general

6. Terminal Markets Also called central markets or public stockyards Facilities are owned by a stockyard company The company charges for the use of the facilities and feed fed while they are in the stockyard Title to the livestock does not pass to the stockyard company Charge for Yardage, feed, insurance, selling fees Seller receives the net amount after the charges are taken out

8. Terminal Markets Exist for both feeder cattle and slaughter cattle Today there are < 30 Compared to the 80 that existed in the 1920’s and 30’s Most are in western states Terminal markets are located near population centers and packing plants

9. Auction Markets  Sold by public bidding.  Also called local sale barns and community auctions.  Livestock collected at auction facility and presented to buyers  Popular due to their convenience for buyers and open competition.  Of the most value to the smaller producers.  Requires minimal marketing on part of producer. o Seller pays commission for this service.

10. Auction Markets Yardage Feed Insurance Brand inspection Health inspection Check-off dollar Charges are based on either a percent of the selling price or a fixed fee Costs are paid by the seller

12. Direct (Private Treaty) Sales  Livestock producers negotiate sale with downstream customer.  i.e., cow-calf operator to backgrounder, feedlot to packer, seedstook to commercial cow-calf operator  Potential to save on commission.  Price discovery is more challenging and must be negotiated (private treaty).  Terms and pricing method determined ahead of marketing date (direct sales).  Allows for relationships to build.

13. Hybrid Markets  Becoming more common  Livestock usually videoed at farm  Eliminates transport to auction location and exposure risks  Can be shipped directly to buyer  More uncertainty about weight, quality, etc.  Electronic (internet) markets  Centralized pricing  Decentralized product movement  Examples  Superior Livestock Auction  Showpig.com

14. When to Sell Classic production function –Optimal selling weight is where marginal cost = marginal revenue –The cost of the next pound = the price of the next pound –Costs increase beyond optimal selling weight Cost per pound decrease then increase with weight –Costs are a function of  Genetic potential, cost of diet, opportunity costs of future production Price per pound increases then decreases –Weight discounts outside optimal range –Fatter carcasses are discounted –Adding extra weight?

15. Using Marginal Concepts Profit-maximizing level of input can be found by examining marginal changes in costs and revenues. Marginal cost is the additional cost of producing that additional unit of output. Marginal revenue is the change in total revenue from selling one more unit of output.

16. Marginal Cost (MC) What is often talked about: average cost of gain for the entire feeding period Important for marketing decision: marginal cost as animal approaches market weight The average cost of gain changes slowly, but the marginal cost of gain changes rapidly

17. Basic Fed Cattle Feed Efficiency (MC) Facts A.Steers are more efficient than heifers, i.e., 6.5 vs. 7.5. B.Holsteins are 8 – 10% less efficient than beef cattle. C.Efficiency tends to decrease with time on feed.

18. Marginal Cost (stylized example) 700 to 1,200 lbs Average F:G = 6.25 Last 50 lbs Marginal F:G = 8.0 By 1,300 lbs Marginal F:G = 10.0 F:G = 10.0 Ration = $100/ton ($0.05/lb) $0.50/lb of gain F:G = 10.0 Ration = $200/ton ($0.10/lb) $1.00/lb of gain * Selling the last lb for $0.90 made sense with $100/ton rations, but not with $200/ton rations Marginal cost changes with F:G and feed price

19. Marginal Revenue (MR) Change in income from selling at a later date and it is also a moving target. 1.Additional pounds to sell 2.Carcass merit and value of the livestock change with weight

20. Marginal revenue –Added weight –More upper Choice, Choice & Prime –Fewer lights –More heavies –More Y4s (Y3.5) –Fewer Y1s + Y2s Marginal costs –Added cost of gain on every animal held Should I Feed a Few More Days?

21. Other Factors In addition to feed, interest and out-of-pocket yardage cost (cattle) should also be included. For small delays in marketing, i.e., a week, interest is often insignificant If pen space is not needed immediately or a daily yardage is not charged, the out-of-pocket yardage charge may be small.

22. The Decision Rule MR = MC The decision rule, MR = MC, leads to the profit-maximizing point. When does it make sense for me to ‘stop’ feeding? – When it costs me more to add additional lbs than it generates in additional revenue.

23. Optimal selling weight for beef cattle (stylized example)

25. Fed Cattle Pricing Process Feedlots will typically offer various groups for sale Processors will have buyers who look at and bid on slaughter cattle They are estimating quality as best as they can How do you bid in this situation?

26. What to Sell Fed cattle are typically sold in one of 3 ways 1.Live weight – price agreed upon for slaughter steer live weight (on the hoof) 2.Carcass weight – price is agreed upon, but based on carcass weight 3.Grid Pricing – base price is agreed upon and premiums and discounts are taken at slaughter based on quality and yield grade

27. What to Sell Live weight One average price for all live pounds Negotiated price before delivery or at auction Weighing conditions important  Mud, shrink (fill, time, stress) Was most common for hogs but not now Still common in large cattle feedlots, less in Iowa Used for feeder cattle, feeder pigs, cull cows Buyer stands quality risk Live weight x price = revenue

28. What to Sell Carcass weight (in-the-meat) One average price for all carcass pounds Negotiated price before delivery Dressing percent (also called yield)  Important to compare bids  Not important in determining value Seller (feedlot) stands risk of low dressing percentage (e.g., genetics, trimming, and condemnation) Buyer (packer) bears risk of poor quality Price will reflect an estimation of quality by the buyer Common for fed cattle in Midwest Carcass weight x price = revenue

29. Data Source: USDA-AMS Livestock Marketing Information Center

30. Dressing Percentage Percent dressed weight of live weight Dressed weight (hanging weight) –After removal of head, hide, etc. –Impacted by weighing conditions, shrink, fat thickness, genetics Typically 60-64% for most cattle Example: 1350 lb steer dresses 841 lbs –841 / 1350 = 62.3% dressing percentage If live slaughter steers prices are $135 per cwt, what is the comparable carcass price? –Assume 62% dress

31. Price Conversions $135 live price / 0.62 (expected dressing percentage = $217.74 carcass equivalent $225 carcass price X 0.62 (expected dressing percentage) = $139.50 live equivalent

32. What is shrink? Shrink = weight loss –And typically refers to weight loss during transport and / or prior to sale Cattle will weigh less after being transported to a sale or weighing location –Ie: from farm to stockyards May help to think of this as actual shrink – the weight that is actually lost

33. What is a “pencil shrink”? “Pencil shrink” – a percentage shrink applied to weight to account for this weight loss For example – cattle purchased and weighed directly “on the farm” vs. cattle hauled, weighed, and sold at stockyards Sometimes buyers may want a “pencil shrink” to adjust weight downward –Typically if cattle are weighed on farm –2% is very common

34. What to Sell Value-based (grid) marketing Each carcass evaluated and priced individually Premiums and discounts determined ahead of delivery Base price may be negotiated or come from formula Carcasses are graded and values assigned Farmer stands grading risk Different buyers have different systems

35. Cattle Marketing Method LiveCarcassGrid Price Each Animal No Yes $ Animal Variability None High $ Packer Variability LittleModerateHigh Trucking Costs BuyerSeller

36. Cattle Marketing Method LiveCarcassGrid Pricing Location Feedlot + Shrink Packing Plant Meat YieldEstimatedCarcass Weight Yield Grade Quality Grade Estimated Actual Base PriceLive Market Dressed Market Varies

37. Cattle Marketing Method LiveCarcassGrid Large Discounts NoSomeYes Price Set Each Time Yes No Seller’s Knowledge Not Critical Somewhat Critical Very Critical

38. Grid Pricing Base price + / - premiums and discounts = grid price Carcass weight x grid price = revenue Removes the uncertainty of live weight pricing –Buyers can see under the skin

39. What is the Purpose of a Grid? To shift quality risk from packer to producer To allow for targeting of certain types of cattle Different types of programs have different grids –Quality based grids, yield based grids –Laura’s lean has a very different grid

40. Four factors impact premiums 1.Hot carcass weight Usually around 62% of live weight Often discounts for large and small 2. Quality Grade Distribution (USDA Grader) Prime, Choice, Select, Standard Based on marbling, proxy for eating experience 3. Yield Grade Distribution (USDA Grader) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Based on lean meat yield 4. Other specs: Product safety & quality assurance Acceptable color Youthfulness What determines price on a grid?

42. Source: www.lmic.info

43. Quality Grades Prime – most amount of marbling, highest quality Choice Select Standard – least amount of marbling, lowest quality

44. Which steak would you rather eat? or AB

45. USDA Select Select (Sl)

46. USDA Choice Choice+ (Md)Choice0 (Mt)Choice- (Sm)

47. USDA Prime Prime0 (MdA)Prime- (SlA)

49. Yield Grades YG 1 – highest expected yield of retail cuts, most desirable YG 2 YG 3 YG 4 YG 5 – lowest expected yield of retail cuts, least desirable

50. Yield Grade 1 Source: www.lmic.info

51. Yield Grade 4 Source: www.lmic.info

52. Yield Grade 5 Source: www.lmic.info

54. Common Ground for Targets 1. Carcass Weights550 - 1000 lbs 2. Quality Grade> Se + or < Ch 0 3. Yield Grade1’s and 2’s

55. Carcass Merit Grid and Premium Trends

56. More on grids Choice / select spread Select discount vs. YG 4 discount CAB and other premiums Other discounts –Heavy carcasses, age, etc.

57. Estimated Steak Brand Premiums Compared to Unbranded Product, January 1, 2004, through March 31, 2009 Schulz, L.L., T.C. Schroeder, and K.L. White. 2012. “Value of Beef Steak Branding: Hedonic Analysis of Retail Scanner Data.” Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 41(2): 260-273.

59. Data Source: USDA-AMS, Compiled & Analysis by LMIC Livestock Marketing Information Center

63. Ex: Grid Premiums & Discounts  Base: Choice YG3 550-1000 lbs  Quality Grade$/cwt  Prime:$12.00  Certified Angus:$6.00  Select-$9.00  Standard-$24.00  “Out” cattle-$30.00 Yield Grade$/cwt 1:$6.00 2:$3.00 3:Par 4:-$10.00 5:-$15.00 Carcass weights$/cwt Under 550-$25.00 1000 & up-$24.00

64. Comparing Bids ($/carcass cwt) Price in appropriate $/cwt AB Base bid price218.00218.00 Prime 20%---+2.40 CAB70%---+4.20 Select15%----1.35 Yield 110%---+0.60 Off weight, >1000 lbs10%----2.40 Transportation-0.65-0.65 Net farm gate price217.35222.10 Bid A is a straight in the meat bid, Bid B is a valued-based bid.

65. Value-based Hog Marketing Base price –Formula based on another market –Negotiated before delivery Factors impacting premiums/discounts –Carcass weight, leanness Fixed (known dollar amount) Relative premiums (percent adjustment) Not USDA graded –Packer employee measures Fat-O-Meter, ruler, ultra-sound

66. Purchase TypeDescription Negotiated Cash TradeCarcass-based negotiated cash market trade Swine or Pork Market FormulaFormula based on a USDA – quoted hog or pork price Other Market FormulaFormula typically based off of lean-hog futures price Other Purchase AgreementOther agreements such as feed cost, breed programs, etc. Value-based Hog Marketing

67. NEGOTIATED OTHER MARKET FORMULA SWINE OR PORK MARKET FORMULA OTHER PURCHASE ARRGMENT HEAD COUNT14,01925,262132,55257,406 CARCASS BASE PRICE73.1477.7272.3879.22 AVERAGE NET PRICE75.4182.1375.5781.35 AVERAGE CARCASS WT201.94211.25210.91203.51 AVERAGE SORT LOSS-1.19-1.51-1.63-0.69 AVERAGE LEAN PERCENT53.4555.9755.5655.43 NATIONAL DAILY DIRECT HOG PRIOR DAY REPORT - SLAUGHTERED SWINE Slaughter Data Barrows and Gilts (Live and Carcass Basis): 339,933

68. CARCASS WEIGHT DIFFERENTIALS 145#-32.00-14.62 155#-30.00-9.00 165#-15.00-3.37 175#-4.002.25 185#4.00 195#0.004.50 205#0.004.50 215#0.004.25 225#-1.331.00 NATIONAL DAILY DIRECT HOG PRIOR DAY HOG REPORT Plant Delivered Purchase IOWA/MINNESOTA DAILY DIRECT NEGOTIATED HOG PURCHASE MATRIX LM_HG204, USDA Market News Des Moines, Iowa

69. Hog Carcass Price by Backfat and Loin Eye Area Hog Carcass Price by Loin Eye Area/Depth (inches) Backfat4.0/1.45.0/1.76.0/2.07.0/2.38.0/2.7 0.40 63.0079.5064.5080.5065.5081.5066.5081.0067.0081.00 0.50 60.0079.0063.0079.5065.5081.5066.0080.0067.0080.00 0.60 60.0078.5063.0079.0064.5080.5065.5081.5066.5080.00 0.70 60.0078.0060.0078.5063.0079.5064.5081.5066.0080.00 0.80 59.0077.5060.0078.0063.0079.0064.5080.5066.0081.50 0.90 59.0077.0060.0077.5060.0078.5063.0079.5065.5081.50 1.00 57.0075.0059.0077.0060.0078.0063.0079.0064.5080.50 1.10 56.0073.0059.0075.0060.0077.5060.0078.5064.5079.50 1.20 56.0070.0057.0073.0059.0077.0060.0078.0063.0079.00 1.40 52.5065.0056.0070.0057.0073.0059.0077.0060.0078.00 National Daily Direct Prior Day Hog Report, Plant Delivered Purchase Data LM_HG200, USDA Market News Des Moines, Iowa

70. Value Range*Average* VOLUME0.00 - 0.000.00 TRANSPORTATION0.55 - 3.001.40 DELIVERY TIME0.25 - 3.000.80 BREED6.50 - 19.5713.04 PORK QUALITY ASSURANCE0.00 - 0.000.00 NATIONAL WEEKLY DIRECT SWINE NON- CARCASS MERIT PREMIUM FOR WEEK * Prices reported per hundred pounds carcass basis

71. Comparing Bids Let’s say you raise hogs halfway between two packers (so transportation costs are the same to both packers) Packer A offers you $65.00/cwt live for your hogs Packer B offers you $82.00/cwt carcass for your hogs –Packer B will grade the carcasses, paying premiums for lean carcasses (+$1.25/cwt), but charging a $0.75/cwt sorting discount –You expect a dressing percentage of 75%

72. Price in appropriate $/cwt AB Bid Price (live)$65.00--- Bid Price (carcass)---$82.00 Lean premium---+1.25 Sort discount----0.75 Dressing percentage ---75.0 Adjusted to live65.0061.88 Transportation-0.35-0.35 Net farm gate price$64.65$61.53 Comparing Bids

73. Class web site: http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/faculty/hart/Classes/econ 337/Spring2016/index.htm