1. Early Societies in South Asia Mr. Bermudez

2. Foundations of Harappan Society The Indus River ◦ Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges Dravidian peoples, 3000-2500 B.C.E. ◦ Cultivation of cotton before 5000 B.C.E., early cultivation of poultry ◦ Decline after 1900 B.C.E. Harappa (Punjab region) and Mohenjo-daro (mouth of Indus River)

3. Mohenjo-Daro Ruins Population about 40,000 Regional center ◦ Layout, architecture suggests public purpose ◦ Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage Standardized weights evident throughout region Specialized labor Trade

4. Harappan Society and Culture Evidence of social stratification ◦ Dwelling size, decoration Harappan civilization: influence on later Indian culture Statues, figurines, and illustrations reflect a tradition of art and metallurgy Venerated goddesses of fertility

5. End of Harappan Civilization Reasons for disappearance unclear ◦ Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil ◦ Earthquakes? ◦ Flooding?  Evidence of unburied dead Disappearance by 1500 B.C.E. Harappan traditions survived – agricultural practices, religious beliefs, and urban traditions

6. The Early Aryans Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle ◦ Cattle not sacred until many centuries later Religious and literary works: the Vedas ◦ Sanskrit: sacred tongue ◦ Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi, Urdu, Bengali ◦ Four Vedas (wisdom), most important Rig Veda  1028 hymns to Aryan gods

7. Varna: The Caste System Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians ◦ Brahmin, priest ◦ Kshatriya, warrior ◦ Vaishya, merchant ◦ Shudra, serf ◦ “Untouchables” Jati system of subcastes ◦ Related to urbanization, increasing social and economic complexity

8. Patriarchy in Ancient Indian Society “Rule of the father” A social order that stood alongside the caste system, and varna hierarchy Enforced in the Lawbook of Manu ◦ Women to be subject to fathers, husbands, sons ◦ Women’s most important duties to bear children and maintain wholesome homes

9. Aryan Religion Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods ◦ Role of brahmins important Ca. 800 B.C.E. some movement away from sacrificial cults ◦ Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians

10. Teachings of the Upanishads Texts that represent blending of Aryan and Dravidian traditions Composed 800-400 B.C.E., some later collections until thirteenth century C.E. Brahman: the universal soul Samsara: reincarnation Karma: accounting for incarnations Moksha: mystical ecstasy Relationship to system of Varna

11. Early Society in East Asia Huang He 3000 miles: Tibet to the Yellow Sea Deposits fertile, light-colored soil Periodic flooding: “China’s sorrow”

12. Prehistoric Society: Yangshao 5000-3000 B.C.E. Middle region of the Yellow River valley Banpo village Painted pottery Bronze tools

13. The Earliest Dynasties Xia ◦ ca. 2200 B.C.E. ◦ Organized through village network ◦ Hereditary monarchy ◦ Flood control Shang ◦ 1766-1122 B.C.E. Zhou ◦ 1122-256 B.C.E.

15. Shang Dynasty Bronze metallurgy ◦ State monopoly Horse-drawn chariots, other wheeled vehicles Political organization: network of fortified cities, loyal to center ◦ 1000 cities ◦ Capital moved six times  Impressive architecture at Ao, Yin Other regional kingdoms coexist: Sanxingdui

16. Zhou Dynasty, 1122-256 B.C.E. No law codes: rule by decree ◦ “Mandate of heaven” Aggregation of villages opposed to Shang leadership ◦ Decentralization of authority Development of cheap iron weaponry ends Shang monopoly on bronze

17. Decline of the Zhou Dynasty Decentralized leadership style allows for building of regional powers ◦ Increasing local independence, refusal to pay Zhou taxes Iron metallurgy allows for widespread creation of weaponry Northern invaders weaken Zhou dynasty, beginning eighth century B.C.E. Internal dissention: the Period of the Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.)

19. Nomadic Peoples of Central Asia Steppe nomads ◦ Poor lands for cultivation, extensive herding activities ◦ Horses domesticated ca. 4000 B.C.E., bronze metallurgy in 2900 B.C.E. Extensive trade with sedentary cultures in China Tensions: frequent raiding

20. Southern Expansion of Chinese Society Yangzi valley ◦ Yangzi River: Chang Jiang, “long river” ◦ Excellent for rice cultivation ◦ Irrigation system developed

21. The Empires of Persia

22. Persian Empires Contemporary Iran Four major dynasties ◦ Achaemenids (558-330 B.C.E.) ◦ Seleucids (323-83 B.C.E.) ◦ Parthians (247 B.C.E.-224 C.E.) ◦ Sasanids (224-651 C.E.)

23. Achaemenid Empire (558-330 B.C.E.) Migration of Medes and Persians from central Asia, before 1000 B.C.E. ◦ Indo-Europeans Capitalized on weakening Assyrian and Babylonian empires Cyrus (r. 558-530 B.C.E.) founder of dynasty ◦ “Cyrus the Shepherd” Peak under Darius (r. 521-486 B.C.E.) ◦ Ruled Indus to the Aegean ◦ Capital Persepolis

24. Achaemenid Administration: The Satrapies Twenty-three administrative divisions Satraps Persian, but staff principally local System of spies, surprise audits ◦ Minimized possibilities of local rebellion Standardized currency for taxation purposes Massive road building, courier services

25. Technologies Qanat: System of underground canals ◦ Avoided excessive loss to evaporation Extensive road-building ◦ Persian Royal Road  1600 miles, some of it paved ◦ Courier service

26. Decline of the Achaemenid Empire Policy of toleration under Cyrus, Darius ◦ Rebuilding of temple in Jerusalem Xerxes (486-465 B.C.E.) harshly represses rebellions in Mesopotamia and Egypt Increasing public discontent

27. Persian Wars (500-479 B.C.E.) Rebellious Greeks in Ionia Peninsular Greeks join in Persians defeated at Marathon (490 B.C.E.), retreated Alexander the Great conquers the Achaemenid empire (334-331 B.C.E.)

28. Seleucid Empire Alexander the Great dies suddenly Generals divide empire, best part goes to Seleucus (r. 305-281 B.C.E.) Attacked by rebellion in India, invasion of Parthians

30. Parthian Empire Seminomadic Parthians drive Seleucus out of Iran Federated governmental structure Especially strong cavalry Weakened by ongoing wars with Romans Fell to internal rebellion

31. Sasanid Empire (224-651 C.E.) Claimed descent from Achaemenids Continual conflicts with Rome, Byzantium in the west, Kush in the east Overwhelmed by Arab conquest in 651 Persian administration and culture absorbed into local Islamic culture

33. Persian Society Early steppe traditions ◦ Warriors, priests, peasants ◦ Family/clan kinship very important Creation of bureaucrat class with empire ◦ Tax collectors ◦ Record keepers ◦ Translators

34. Zoroastrianism Early Aryan influences on Persian religious traditions Zarathustra (late seventh to early sixth century B.C.E.) Prophet of Ahura Mazda, against Angra Mainyu Priests of Zarathustra known as magi Oral teachings until Sasanid period composed Gathas