1. Educational Research Qualitative Research: Data Collection
Chapter 7 (7th)/ Chapter 15 (8th)
Gay and Airasian

2. Topics Discussed in this Chapter
Selecting research participants
Collecting data
Observations
Interviews
Threats to the quality of observational and interview data
Data collection various qualitative approaches

3. Selecting Participants
Initial screening of participants
Using the gatekeeper’s advice
Benefits of a face-to-face meeting
Previewing setting
Ethical responsibilities
Informed consent
Protection from harm

4. Selecting Participants
Ethical responsibilities
Informed consent
Knowledge of the nature and purpose of the study as well as expected roles and activities
Protection from harm
Anonymity – no ability to trace data to the person providing it
Confidentiality – identification of the participant is kept in confidence by the researcher so it is unknown to anyone else

5. Selecting Participants
Ethical responsibilities (continued)
Questions to help assure ethical behavior
Have participants knowingly consented to participate?
Do participants understand what consent involves?
Are participant’s rights and consents maintained during and after the study?
Were participants given a description of the study and its purpose?
How were the participants described?

6. Selecting Participants
Ethical responsibilities (continued)
Questions to help assure ethical behavior
Was a description of the procedures in the study made clear?
Were participants told what will happen to them if they agree to participate?
Were participants told how the researcher would protect their identity?
Were participants given information to contact the researcher or the individuals responsible for the research?

7. Selecting Participants
Purposive sampling
Suited to the unique aspects or qualitative research
Strategies
Extreme or deviant case
Snowball
Maximum variation
Theory based
Normal or typical cases
Homogeneous cases
Critical case
Confirming or disconfirming cases

8. Selecting Participants
Sample size
Typically small samples to enhance “depth” of understanding
Guidelines
Sample relative to the extent to which participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting
Sample until the data collected is redundant to that which was already collected (i.e., data saturation)

9. Collecting Data Characteristics
The researcher is the primary source of data
Two major types of data collection methods
Observation
Interview
Use of multiple methods

10. Collecting Data General guidelines for initial data collection
Do not take what happens in the field personally
Have someone introduce you during the first visit
Don’t try to accomplish too much in the first days
Be relatively passive
Be friendly and polite

11. Observation Types Participant observation
Observer is actively engaged in activities at the research site
Advantage – easier to gain insight into the participant’s views and develop relationships with them
Disadvantage – potential for the researcher to lose objectivity

12. Observation Types Non-participant observation
Observer watches but does not take part in activities at the research site
Advantage – good strategy if the researcher cannot be a participant for some reason (e.g., age, race, gender, knowledge, etc.)
Disadvantage – the lack of a relationship with participants can lead to misunderstandings

13. Observation Field notes
Observer’s records of what has been seen, heard, experienced, and thought during an observation
Two Components
Description – thick descriptions of what actually takes place
Reflection – the researcher’s thoughts or ideas about the meaning of what was observed

14. Observation Field notes (continued)
Typically recorded in the field during or just subsequent to the observation
Translated into an electronic format to assist in the analysis
Sample protocol
Who is being observed?How many participants are being observed, who are they, and what roles do they play?

15. Observation Field notes (continued) Sample protocol (continued)
What is going on? What are people saying or doing? What is the setting like? How are people seated and where? How do participants interact with one another? What was the tone of the session?
How did the meeting end in terms of the relationships among participants?
What activities or interactions seemed unusual or significant? What was the researcher doing during the session?

16. Observation Field notes (continued) Guidelines Start slowly
Try to enter the field without preconceptions
Write up your field notes as soon as possible
List the date, time, site, and topic on every set of field notes
List key words related to your observation then outline what you heard and saw

17. Observation Field notes (continued) Guidelines (continued)
Keep descriptive and reflective sections separate
Concentrate on writing detailed descriptive field notes
Write down your hunches, questions, insights, etc. after each session
Number the lines of your field notes (see your word processor formats)

18. Observation Memo writing
Process of simultaneously collecting, analyzing, and reflecting on data
Observe, write, reflect - thinking on paper
Functions
Identify topics or issues the researcher wishes to explore in more detail
Identify areas that might be important to focus on in the formal data analysis
Identified categories across notes provide opportunity to be reflective about methods, ethical issues, areas for analysis, and ways to improve data analysis

19. Observation Other observational strategies
Naturalistic observation - holistic inquiry about the participant’s understanding in the natural setting or environment
Simulation observation – the researcher creates a situation to be observed and tells the participants what activities to engage in

20. Observation Steps for conducting observations
Define the observable variable
Assess observer reliability
Inter-rater reliability – two observers reach agreement on what has taken place
Training observers
Monitoring observers

21. Observation Steps for conducting observations (continued)
Recording observations
Use of protocols
Use of timed observations
Observe one behavior at a time
Record behavior as it occurs
Use coding systems

22. Interviews Two definitions
A purposeful interaction between two or more people focused on one person trying to get information from the other person
A joint construction of meaning between the researcher and participant

23. Interviews Complexities related to using interviews
Gender, cultural, or social differences between the interviewer and interviewee
The nature of control of the situation
Accuracy of responses
Different semantic meanings for what is said
Ability of the interviewer to probe effectively

24. Interviews Flexibility of format Number of participants
Length of interview
Structure – five levels
Unstructured – exploratory and therefore focused on the interests developed during the process
Partially structured – area is chosen and questions are formulated but ordering is flexible

25. Interviews Flexibility of format (continued) Structure (continued)
Semi-structured – questions and order are determined and followed
Structured – questions and order are structured and interviewee’s responses are coded
Totally structured – questions and order are structured and the interviewee chooses from among structured responses

26. Interviews Recording data Three common methods Transcribing tapes
Notes and video taping during the interview
Writing notes after the interview
Tape record the interview
Most effective due to fewer distractions during the interview
Transcribing tapes
Time and effort required
Transcriptions become field notes

27. Interviews Guidelines for interviewing Listen more, talk less
Follow up on what interviewees say and ask questions when you don’t understand
Avoid leading questions by asking open-ended questions
Don’t interrupt; learn to wait

28. Interviews Guidelines (continued) Keep interviewee focused
Tolerate silence
Don’t be judgmental about interviewee’s views or beliefs
Don’t debate over interviewee’s responses

29. Threats to the Quality of Data
Two sources of threats
Observer bias – invalid information resulting from the perspective of the researcher
Influence of an researcher’s background, personal experiences, preferences, attitudes, etc.
Response set – tendency to see similar things
Halo effect – initial impressions affect subsequent observations
Observer’s knowledge of the participants affect the observation

30. Threats to the Quality of Data
Two threats (continued)
Observer effect – the impact of the observer’s participation on the setting or the participants
Enhancing validity and reducing bias
Validity – the extent to which the data accurately reflect the participant’s true perspectives and beliefs

31. Threats to the Quality of Data
Enhancing validity and reducing bias
Strategies
Spend an extended time in the field
Include additional participants to broaden representativeness of the study
Obtain participant trust
Recognize one’s own biases and preferences
Work with another researcher and independently collect and compare data from subgroups

32. Threats to the Quality of Data
Enhancing validity and reducing bias
Strategies (continued)
Allow participants to review and critique field notes and tape recordings
Use verbatim accounts of observations and interviews
Record one’s own reflections in a separate journal
Examine unusual or contradictory results
Triangulate using different data sources

33. Disengaging from the Field
No simple rules beyond that of data saturation
Gradually leaving is better than abruptly doing so

34. Data Collection for Qualitative Approaches
Ethnography: observation, interviews, artifacts
Grounded Theory: observation, interviews
Action Research: observation, interviews, questionnaires, student artifacts

35. Data Collection for Qualitative Approaches
Historical: Non-participatory nature of researcher’s role in historical studies
Inanimate nature of data sources
Print material - documents, books, journals, etc.
Communications - notes, , memos, etc.
Electronic media – recordings, tapes, videos, movies, photos, etc.
Artifacts
Oral histories – recollections of participants who experienced the situation being studied

36. Data Collection for Qualitative Approaches
Historical: Importance of distinguishing primary and secondary sources
Primary – firsthand information such as original documents, eyewitness accounts, etc.
Secondary – secondhand information such as textbooks, newspaper reports, summaries, etc.