1. Sense Relations and Semantic Field
Chapter Six
Sense Relations and Semantic Field
This chapter intends to discuss the main sense relations among words such as polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, their sources, characteristics and semantic field as well.

2. Main Points 1. Polysemy 1) Two approaches: Synchronic Diachronic
2) Two processes:
Radiation
Concatenation
2. Homonymy
1) Origins of homonyms:
Perfect homonyms
Homograph
Homophone
2) Origins of homonyms:
Change in sound and spelling
Borrowing
Shortening
3) Criteria to distinguish homonyms and polysemants:
Source
Relatedness in meaning

3. 3. Synonymy
1) Types of synonyms:
Absolute synonyms (Complete synonyms or perfect synonyms)
Relative synonyms (Near-synonyms or partial synonyms)
2) Sources of synonyms:
Borrowing
Dialects and regional English
Figurative and euphemistic use of words
Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
3) Discrimination of synonyms:
Difference in denotation
Difference in connotation
Difference in application

4. 4. Antonymy
1) Types of antonyms:
Contradictory terms
Contrary terms (Gradable antonyms)
Relative terms (Relational opposites)
2) Characteristics of antonyms:
Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.
A word may have more than one antonym.
Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.
Contrary terms should be of same intensity.
3) Use of antonyms:
To define words
To form antithesis for rhetorical purpose
5. Hyponymy
Superordinate and subordinate terms
Effect of them in use
6. Semantic Field
Definition of semantic field
Function of semantic field
Variations of semantic fields in different languages

5. 6.0 Sense relations :
Words are arbitrary symbols and are independent identities so far as their outer facet—spelling and pronunciation, is concerned. But semantically, all words are related in one way or another. A word which is related to other words is related to them in sense, hence sense relations.

6. 6.1 Polysemy (多义关系)
Polysemy is a sense relation that deals with words of more than one meaning. Or: polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages. In modern English, an overwhelming majority of words are polysemous. There are words that have two or three senses, and the most commonly used ones can have as many as over a hundred. However, when a word is first coined, it is always monosemic. But in the course of development, the same symbol must be used to express more meanings. The result is polysemy.

7. Diachronic approach (历时方法)
Two approaches to polysemy
We can study polysemy from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.
Diachronic approach (历时方法)
From the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.
Synchronic approach (共时方法)
From the synchronic point of view, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. The basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning (central meaning). The derived meanings, no matter how many, are secondary in comparison. However, the central meaning has gradually diminished in currency with the changes in culture and society, and one of the derived meanings has become dominant.

8. Two processes of development
The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses: radiation and concatenation.
1) Radiation(辐射型)
Radiation is a semantic process which shows the primary meaning and each of the derived meanings are directly connected.
2)Concatenation(连锁型)
Concatenation is the semantic process which shows that the primary meaning gives birth to a second meaning and this second meaning in turn gives birth to a third meaning and so on. Each of the derived meanings is directly related only to the previous meaning and there is no direct connection between the primary meaning and the latest developed meaning.
Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.

9. 1)that part of a man or animal joining the head to the body;
Fundamental difference between the processes of radiation and concatenation
Radiation is a semantic process which shows that the primary meaning and each of the derived meanings are directly connected. e. g.
Neck
1)that part of a man or animal joining the head to the body;
2) that part of the garment;
3)the neck of an animal used as food;
4)a narrow part between the head and body or base of any object;
5)the narrowest part of anything.
Of these five meanings, 1) is the primary and all the rest are derived but each of the other four is directly related to 1). Therefore, we can say neck has developed through the process of radiation.

10. Concatenation is a semantic process which shows that the primary meaning gives birth to a second meaning and this second meaning in turn gives birth to a third meaning and so on. Each of the derived meanings is directed only to the previous meaning and there is no direct connection between the primary meaning and the latest developed meaning. e.g.
Candidate
1)white-robed;
2)office seeker in white gowns;
3)a person who seeks an office;
4)a person proposed for a place, award, etc.
Of the four meanings, 1) is the primary and the other three are derived, but each of the derived meanings is only directly related to the preceding one and there is no direct connection between 1) and 4). Therefore, we can say candidate has developed through the process of concatenation.

11. 6.2 Homonymy (同形同音异义关系)
Definition of homonyms: Homonyms are words which are different in meaning but either identical in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
Types of homonyms: perfect homonyms, homographs and homophones (based on the degree of similarity).
1)Perfect homonyms: words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. e.g. bank 河岸，银行
2)Homographs (also known as Heteronyms): words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. e.g. bow [bau] 鞠躬，bow[bou] 弓
3)Homophones: words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. e.g. deer鹿; dear亲爱的（人）
. Origins of homonyms:
1)Change in sound and spelling.
2)Borrowing.
3)Shortening.

12. Difference between homonyms and polysemants（同形同音异义词与多义词之区别）：
1)Homonyms refer to different words which happen to share the same form, while a polysemant refers to the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.
2)Homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development by etymology.
3)Meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another, while the various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree.
4)In dictionaries, homonyms are listed as separate entries whereas a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword (entry ).
Rhetoric features of homonyms:
As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.

13. 6.3 Synonymy (同义关系) Definition of synonyms:
A synonym is one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning (WNDS). In other words, synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as in part of speech.
Types of synonyms:
1)Absolute synonyms (also complete synonyms or perfect synonyms): words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects and interchangeable in all situations.
2)Relative synonyms (also near-synonyms or partial synonyms): words which are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.

14. ---How do you understand the statement that “true synonymy is non-existent”?
Synonyms can be classified into absolute synonyms and relative synonyms. Absolute synonyms are considered to be identical in every aspect, and are interchangeable in all situations. They are confined to technical terms like word-formation—word-building; composition—compounding. But even technical terms like these might still have some slight difference, for instance, one term is preferable in some situation, etc. That is why we say “true synonymy is non-existent”.

15. Sources of synonyms:
The existence of English synonyms is mainly due to
1) borrowing.
2) dialects and regional English.
3) figurative and euphemistic use of words.
4) coincidence with idiomatic expressions.
Discrimination of synonyms:
1)Difference in denotation: Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.
2)Difference in connotation: Synonyms may differ in their stylistic appropriateness and emotive colouring although they share the same denotation.
3)Difference in application: Many words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage. They form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns.

16. 6.4 Antonymy (反义关系)
Definition of antonyms: Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.
Types of antonyms:
1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词) ：contradictory terms are antonyms which are mutually exclusive. The assertion of one is the denial of the other. Antonyms of this kind are non-gradable.
e.g. man→woman; present→absent.
2)Contrary terms (相对反义词；对立反义词 or gradable antonyms 可分级反义词) ：contrary terms are gradable. Each pair represents two extremes; there are often intermediate members in between.
e .g. poor---well to do---rich; hot---warm, cool---cold.
3)Relative terms (关系反义词or relational opposites) ：relative terms are relational opposites and they show an interdependence between them. e.g. borrow→lend. If one borrows something from another, the other lends it to him or vice versa. Without the first, the other cannot exist.

17. Difference between relative terms and contradictory terms:
Some of the relative terms look similar to contradictory terms, but they are different. There is an absolute opposition between contradictory terms. Take man→woman for example. If the adult is not a man, then the adult must be a woman. But in the case of relative terms, the opposition is only relational. For example, husband→wife . If the adult is not husband, the adult must be wife. This case is illogical and can not hold water.

18. Characteristics of antonyms:
1)Antonyms are classified based on semantic opposition. Words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms. Then verbs denoting action or activity. Least antonyms are found among nouns which are names of objects, domain, idea, etc. There are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.
2)A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. Or： A polysemic word can have more than one antonym.
3)Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. In a pair of antonyms, the unmarked term generally includes the sense of the marked.
4)Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite. e.g. hot→cold; warm→cool. Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative (by adding negative prefix) and the other opposite. e.g. happy→unhappy; sad.

19. Use of antonyms:
1)Antonyms are used to define the meanings of words.
2)Many idioms are formed with antonyms. They look neat, pleasant, and sound rhythmic.
3)Antonyms are often used to form antithesis in proverbs and savings.
4)Antonyms are used to serve the stylistic purposes.
6.5 Hyponymy (上下义关系)
Definition of hyponymy: Hyponymy is a sense relation that deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.

20. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms.
Living things
Creature
Plant
Animal
Insect
Vegetable
Flower
Tree
Horse
Dog
Pig
Cockroach
Cabbage
Rose
Pine
Mare
Hound
Swine

21. Answer: furniture: desk, chair, table, bed.
Difference between superordinates and subordinates:
Superordinates are words denoting genus, thus being general, and subordinates are words denoting species, thus being specific. Superordinates are cover terms which include the concept of the subordinates whereas subordinates are specific and their meanings are included in the sense of superordinates. Take flower—rose, fruit---apple, for example. In each pair, the former is the superordinate and the latter is subordinate.
--- Group the following words into semantic fields initiated with the superordinate that covers each field:
desk, liquid, pork, go, furniture, gas, matter, run, beef, chair, meat, mutton, table, fly, bed, solid, walk.
Answer: furniture: desk, chair, table, bed.
matter: liquid, gas, solid.
meat: pork, beef, mutton.
go: run, fly, walk.

22. --- Group the following words and give a term to cover each:
Mercury, hearts, earth, lunch, diamonds, fire, Venus, breakfast, spades, dinner, Earth, water, Mars, supper, clubs, air, Saturn, Jupiter.
Answer:
Patterns: hearts, diamonds, spades, clubs.
Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.
Natural elements: earth, fire, water, air.
Meals: lunch, breakfast, dinner, supper.

23. 6.6 Semantic Field (语义场)
The massive word store of English as a language can be regarded as a number of meaning areas, some are large, others are smaller. The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary as “integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense.” So, the “words of language can be classified into semantically related sets or fields”. According to Trier’s vision of fields, the whole vocabulary can be divided into fields. Words in each field are semantically related and define one another. Semantic field was first put forward by Jost Trier in the 30s of last century.
A semantic field is a meaning area where words share the same concept. A semantic field is useful because it helps pin down the meanings of words in relation to other words in the semantic field. Often a word is not known until the words that operate with it become known.

24. One example: apple, pear, peach, apricot, date, mango, pineapple, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of “fruits”.
Another example: celery, lettuce, leek, cucumber, potato, spinach, tomato, egg-plant, carrot and so on form the field of “vegetables”.
The third example: red, orange, yellow, green, white, black, blue, purple, pink, etc. form the field of “colours”.

25. The vocabulary of a language is in constant change; old items drop out, new items come in, and as the new replace the old, so the internal relations of the whole set alter.
The following two diagrams reflect the change. The first shows the division 20 years ago; the second shows the present division.

26. The first diagram
female
male
unmarried
Miss Mr .
married
Mrs
neutral

27. The second diagram female male unmarried Miss Mr . married Mrs neutralMs

28. The following picture shows that the semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different languages
English
Chinese
father
mother
uncle
father’ s younger brother 叔父
father’s elder brother 大伯
mother’s brother 舅舅
mother’s sister’s husband 姨父
father’s sister’s husband 姑父
aunt
father’s elder brother’s wife 大婶
father’s younger brother’s wife 小婶
father’s sister 姑母
mother’s sister 姨母
mother’s brother’s wife 舅母

29. cousin father’s brother’s sons (older or younger) 堂兄弟
mother’s brother’s sons (older or younger) 舅表兄弟
father’s brother’s daughters (older or younger) 堂姐妹
mother’s brother’s daughters (older or younger) 舅表姐妹
father’s sister’s sons (older or younger) 姑表兄弟
mother’s sister’s sons (older or younger)
姨表兄弟
father’s sister’s daughters (older or younger)
姑表姐妹
mother’s sister’s daughters (older or younger)
姨表姐妹

30. nephew
brother’s sons (older or younger) 侄子
sister’s sons (older or younger) 外甥
wife’s brother’s sons (older or younger) 内侄
wife’s sister’s sons (older or younger) 姨侄
niece
brother’s daughters (older or younger) 侄女
sister’s daughters (older or younger) 外甥女
wife’s brother’s daughters (older or younger)
内侄女
wife’s sister’s daughters (older or younger)
姨侄女

31. ----Words of the semantic field are related by the same concept and so are groups of synonyms. Can you differentiate a semantic field from a synonymously semantic field? Study the two groups of words below and explain the difference.
horse: steed, charger, palfrey, plug, nag
horse: pony, mustang, mule, stud, mare.
Answer:
Group（a）is synonymously semantic field and Group（b）is semantic field. The difference lies: In Group（a）, the words are synonyms, none of them covers the meaning of another, and they differ only in style and emotive values. That is, they are all different names for horse. In Group（b）, the words are not synonyms, but each refers to a specific type of horse. Horse is a cover term or superordinate, and others are subordinates. They have no difference in style or affective meaning. That is, they are different kinds of horses.

32. ㈠ Questions
1.What is polysemy?
Polysemy is a sense relation that deals with words of more than one meaning.
2. What is radiation and concantenation?
Radiation is a semantic process which shows that the primary meaning and each of the derived meanings are directly connected.
Concatenation is the semantic process which shows that the primary meaning gives birth to a second meaning and this second meaning in turn gives birth to a third meaning and so on. Each of the derived meanings is directly related only to the previous meaning and there is no direct connection between the primary meaning and the latest developed meaning.

33. ㈡ Complete the following passage with appropriate words
3.What are the major sources of English synonyms?
The existence of English synonyms is mainly due to 1) borrowing,
2) dialects and regional English, 3) figurative and euphemistic use of words and 4) coincidence with idiomatic expressions.
4. What is hyponymy?
Hyponymy is a sense relation that deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
㈡ Complete the following passage with appropriate words
A semantic field is a ____ area where words share the same ____ .
A semantic field is useful because it helps pin down the_____ of words in relation to other words in the____ . Often, a word is not known until the words that ____ with it becomes known.
meaning, concept, meanings, semantic field, operate.

34. 1. Perfect homonyms share the same spelling and pronunciation.
㈢ Decide whether the statements below are true or false.
1. Perfect homonyms share the same spelling and pronunciation.
2. Homonyms come mainly from borrowing, changes in sound and spelling, and dialects.
3. Homonyms are words whose meanings are closely related.
4. The origins of the words are a key factor in distinguishing homonyms from polysemants.
5. Words which have opposite meanings are called antonyms.
6. Contradictory terms do not show degrees.
7. Relative terms are relational opposites, which include verbs reversing the action of each other.
8. Contrary terms are non-gradable and allow intermediate members in between.
9. If a word has synonyms, naturally it has antonyms.
10. The unmarked term of an antonymous pair often covers the meaning of the marked.
11. Antonyms should be opposites of similar intensity.
12. Antonymy deals with the relationship of semantic opposition.
T—F—F—T—T—T—T—F—F—T—T—T.