1. SOCIOLOGY: PERSPECTIVE, THEORY, AND METHOD Chapter 1

2. Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 1.1 Explain how the sociological perspective helps us understand that society shapes our individual lives. LO 1.2 State several reasons that a global perspective is important in today’s world. LO 1.3 Identify the advantages of sociological thinking for developing public policy, for encouraging personal growth, and for advancing in a career. LO 1.4 Link the origins of sociology to historical social changes. LO 1.5 Summarize sociology’s major theoretical approaches.

3. Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 1.6 Describe sociology’s three research orientations. LO 1.7 Identify the importance of gender in sociological research. LO 1.8 Discuss the importance of ethics to sociological research. LO 1.9 Explain why a researcher might choose each of sociology’s research methods. LO 1.10 Recall the ten important steps in carrying out sociological research.

4. The Power of Society Do we simply “pick” our marriage partners?

5. The Sociological Perspective Sociologists look for general patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. Society shapes what people think and do in patterned ways in everyday life. Marginality, crisis, and rapid change enhance the ability to see sociologically. LO 1.1 Explain how the sociological perspective helps us understand that society shapes our individual lives.

6. The Sociological Perspective: Seeing Society in Our Everyday Life Durkheim Suicide study findings and analysis still hold true in current research studies. Differences between those who commit suicide and those who do not is social integration.

7. Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life Sociological imagination (Mills) –Society, not people, is main cause of poverty and other social problems. –Sociological imagination turns personal problems into public issues to mitigate change.

8. Seeing Sociologically: Marginality and Crisis Greater marginality is related to better ability to use the sociological perspective. Crisis or rapid change encourages use of sociological perspective (Mills).

9. The Importance of a Global Perspective: What Is…? Global perspective –Study of the larger world and our society’s place in it Global perspective importance –Sociology shows that our place in society profoundly affects our life experiences. LO 1.2 State several reasons that a global perspective is important in today’s world.

10. The Importance of a Global Perspective: Understanding Categories Broad categories of level of economic development –High-income countries –Middle-income countries –Low-income countries

11. The Importance of a Global Perspective Where we live shapes the lives we lead. Societies are increasingly interconnected through technology, economics, and immigration. Many social problems that we face in the United States are more serious elsewhere. Thinking globally is a good way to learn more about ourselves.

12. Applying the Sociological Perspective: Sociology and Public Policy Sociologists help shape public policy. –Laws and regulations guide life and work in communities. –Examples: Racial desegregation, school busing, divorce laws LO 1.3 Identify the advantages of sociological thinking for developing public policy, for encouraging personal growth, and for advancing in a career.

13. Applying the Sociological Perspective: Sociology and Personal Growth Sociology –Aids in assessment of the truth of “common sense” –Helps in evaluation of the opportunities and constraints of everyday lives –Empowers people to be active participants in society –Helps people live in a diverse world

14. Careers: The “Sociology Advantage” A sociology background Excellent preparation for working world Important preparation careers in teaching and research in sociology and a wide range of other professional positions Required preparation for clinical sociologists

15. Social Change and Development of Sociology In 18 th and 19 th century Europe –Rise of factory-based, industrial economy –Explosive growth of cities –New ideas about democracy, political rights, and individualism LO 1.4 Link the origins of sociology to historical social changes.

16. Science and Sociology Auguste Comte (1798–1857) Was French social thinker who coined the term “sociology” in 1838 Introduced approach called positivism Saw sociology as product of three historical stages

17. Sociological Theory: What Is…? Theory –Statement of how and why specific facts are related Theoretical approach –Basic image of society that guides thinking and research LO 1.5 Summarize sociology’s major theoretical approaches.

18. The Structural-Functional Approach The basics Macro-level orientation Societal parts integrated to promote solidarity and stability Key elements Social structure Social function –Manifest functions –Latent functions Theorists : Comte, Durkheim, Spencer

19. Social-Conflict Approach: What Is…? Social-conflict approach Sees society as arena of inequality that generates conflict and change Gender-conflict theory Focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men Race-conflict theory Focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories

20. Social-Conflict Approach The basics Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality. Dominant group versus disadvantaged group relations vary. Key elements Social structure promotes the operation of society as a whole rejected. Society structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority. Theorists Karl Marx and W.E.B Du Bois

21. Social-Conflict Approach Evaluation Social-conflict approach used to understand society and to bring about societal change that would reduce inequality Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society

22. Feminism and the Gender-Conflict Approach The basics Gender-conflict theory: Focus on inequality and conflict between women and men Feminism: Advocacy of social equality for women and men linked to gender-conflict theory Theorists Harriet Martineau Jane Addams LO 1.7 Identify the importance of gender in sociological research.

23. The Race-Conflict Approach The basics Focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories Suggests racial conflict still issue in United States Theorists Ida Wells Barnett W.E.B. Du Bois

24. Social-Conflict Theories Evaluation Large following gained in recent decades Focuses on inequality, but largely ignores how shared values and interdependence unify members of a society Cannot claim scientific objectivity

25. Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm The basics Focuses on social interactions in specific situations Views society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals Key elements Society is shared, dynamic constructed reality developed through interaction. Theorists Weber Mead

26. Sports: Playing the Theory Game Structural-functional: Recreation and help social relationship building. Social-conflict: Social inequality exists in sports. Gender-conflict: Gender equality is not evident, especially in earnings and prestige. Race-conflict: Racial conflict still exists. Symbolic-interaction: Understanding varies by each player.

27. Three Ways to Do Sociology All sociologists want to learn about the social world. Three ways to do sociological research –Positivist sociology –Interpretive sociology –Critical sociology LO 1.6 Describe sociology’s three research orientations.

28. Positivist Sociology: What Is…? Positivist sociology –Study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior Empirical evidence –Information we can verify with our senses Science –Logical system that develops knowledge from direct, systematic observation

29. Concepts and Variables: What Is…? Concept –Mental construct; represents some part of the world in a simplified form Variable –Concept that changes from case to case

30. Measurement: What Is…? Measurement –Procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case Variable operationalization –Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning variable value

31. Statistics: What Is…? Descriptive statistics –State what is “average” for a large population Most commonly used descriptive statistics –Mean –Median –Mode

32. Reliability and Validity: What Is…? Reliability –Consistency in measurement –Process must yield the same results when repeated Validity –Measuring exactly what you intend to measure

33. Correlation and Cause Correlation –Relationship in which two (or more) variables change together Cause and effect –Relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another

34. The Ideal of Objectivity Objectivity –Personal neutrality Value-relevant research –Topics the researcher cares about Value-free research –Dedication to finding truth as it is, rather than as we think it should be

35. Interpretive Sociology: What Is…? Interpretive sociology –Study of society that focuses on discovering the meanings people attach to their social world

36. Scientific Versus Interpretive Sociology Scientific sociology focuses on action. Scientific sociology sees an objective reality. Scientific sociology favors quantitative data. Interpretive sociology focuses on meaning. Interpretive sociology sees reality. Interpretive sociology favors qualitative data.

37. Weber’s Concept of Verstehen German word for “understanding” Interpretive sociologist’s role –Observe what people do –Share in their world of meaning –Appreciate why they act as they do

38. Critical Sociology: What Is…? Critical sociology –Focuses on the need for social change –Asks moral and political questions –Rejects Weber’s goal of value-free sociology –Emphasizes sociologists social activism in pursuit of greater social equality

39. Sociology as Politics Scientific sociologists –Object to taking sides in this way –Claims critical sociology Critical sociologists –All research is political in that it either calls for change or does not

40. Research Orientation and Theory Gender can affect sociological research in five ways –Androcentricity, over-generalizing, gender blindness, double standards, and interference LO 1.7 Identify the importance of gender in sociological research.

41. Research Ethics Sociologists must be aware that research can harm as well as help subjects and communities. American Sociological Association –Established formal guidelines for conducting research LO 1.8 Discuss the importance of ethics to sociological research.

42. Research Methods: What Is…? Research methods –Systematic plan for doing research Four methods of sociological investigation –Experiments –Surveys –Participant observation –Existing sources LO 1.9 Explain why a researcher might choose each of sociology’s research methods.

43. Research Methods: What Is…? Experiment –Research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions Hypothesis –Statement of a possible relationship between two (or more) variables

44. Steps of the Experiment 1.State which variable is the independent variable (the “cause” of the change) and which is the dependent variable (the “effect,” the thing that is changed) 2. Measure the initial value of the dependent variable 3.Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable (the “cause” or “treatment”) 4.Measure the dependent variable again to see what change, if any, took place. 5.If the expected change took place, the experiment supports the hypothesis; if not, the hypothesis must be modified.

45. Asking Questions: Survey Research Survey –Subjects respond to series of statements or question on questionnaire or interview. Population –Any set of people or events from which the sample is selected and to which the study results will generalize. Sample –Group of people or events drawn from a population.

46. In the Field: Participant Observation Participant observation –Systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities. Cultural anthropologists –Using “fieldwork” to study societies –Making most participant observation exploratory and descriptive

47. Using Available Data: Existing Sources Sociologists make use of existing sources of data collected by others –U.S. Census Bureau –United Nations –World Bank Weakness –Data form incompatibility –Data accuracy

48. Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Research 1.What is your topic? 2.What have others already learned? 3.What, exactly, are your questions? 4.What will you need to carry out research? 5.Might the research cause harm? LO 1.10 Recall the ten important steps in carrying out sociological research.

49. Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Research 6.What method will you use? 7.How will you record the data? 8.What do the data tell you? 9.What are your conclusions? 10. How can you share what you have learned?