1. Toward a New Paradigm of Star Formation: Does Nature Abhor a Singular Isothermal Sphere? Brenda C. Matthews UC Berkeley Radio Astronomy Laboratory

2. Outline Star Formation is Rapid Understanding cluster formation = understanding star formation  IMF  Turbulence simulations Cloud/Core structure  Magnetic fields: critical or subcritical?  Starless/pre-stellar cores The Next Decade  Surveys = large scale  Interferometers = high resolution

3. The Jeans Mass and SFE Jeans mass of GMCs: how much mass could the thermal motion support?  25 K  0.2 km/s  a few solar masses!  Orion is 10 6 M ⊙ ! Molecular clouds are not globally collapsing  Support needed on cloud scales? Magnetic fields and/or turbulence Star Formation Efficiency is Low (1-5 %)  Need to slow down collapse: magnetic fields and ambipolar diffusion  Are all regions “star-forming”? In turbulent star-forming scenario, not all “cores” will collapse; re-expansion is possible (Vasquez- Semadeni et al. 2003)

4. Evidence for Additional Support On Large Scales: good observations  Measured linewidths are much wider than thermal values (Myers et al.) Turbulence (magnetic or non-magnetic?)  Measurements of Zeeman splitting of OH reveals magnetic fields are present at levels of several µG - mG (Troland, Heiles et al.)  Magnetic-kinetic-gravitational equipartion (Myers & Goodman 1988) On Small Scales: good theory  Ambipolar diffusion

5. The “Standard Model” isolated, low mass cores forming sun-like stars core formation? close multiples? a.Core formation b.Infall c.Infall + outflow d.T-Tauri Ambipolar diffusion supports cloud to delay star formation (Shu & collaborators) 2 Myr to form a 1 M ⊙ star in Taurus

6. Star Formation is Rapid Only one known cloud without any stellar population at all Stellar populations in embedded clouds are 1-3 Myr Older associations (5-10 Myr) have no remaining molecular gas (e.g. Leisawitz, Bash & Thaddeus 1989) Hartmann et al. 2001

7. Implications of Short GMC lifetimes MHD turbulence decays rapidly (e.g. Stone et al. 1998)  Don’t need to regenerate it if cloud lifetimes are comparable to or less than a crossing time Turbulence could just be leftover from cloud formation  Removes difficulty of requiring regeneration with stellar sources which are more likely to disrupt a cloud than stabilize it Low SFE is a result of global turbulent support, not slow cloud contraction under ambipolar diffusion (Hartmann 1998)  If ambipolar diffusion has no time to operate, large amounts of magnetic flux must not need to be removed from these cores (cannot be strongly magnetically subcritical)

8. Embedded Clusters & Molecular Gas Less than 10% of the area and mass of a GMC is in the form of dense gas which is non-uniformly distributed Star formation efficiencies 10- 30% within these dense cores, which are associated (naturally) with embedded clusters Globally SFE in molecular clouds only 1-5% (Duerr et al. 1982) Bally 1986

9. Embedded Clusters discovered 30 yrs ago in a near-IR survey of Ophiuchus (Grasdalen et al. 1974; Wilking & Lada 1983) required infrared telescopes > 100 Galactic clusters known (pre-2MASS) 2MASS has recently increased population by 50% (Bica et al. 2003; Dutra et al. 2003) Alves, RCW 38 VLT

10. Embedded Cluster Mass Function flat from 50-1000 M ⊙ 1000 M ⊙ clusters contribute a significant fraction of total stellar mass > 90% of stars form in clusters exceeding 50 M ⊙ drop in lowest mass bin significant There is a characteristic mass for star formation activity. Lada & Lada 2003

11. Embedded Clusters Dominate Fraction of stars born in embedded clusters is high based on observations in nearby regions  60-90% forming stars in L1630 are in 3 clusters (Lada et al. 1991)  Similar results in 4 other clouds with 2MASS data (Carpenter 2000): 50-100%  Lower limits as field population is not removed! Clusters are the dominant mode of star formation for stars of all masses! Orion B (L1630) JCMT Johnstone et al. 2001

12. Observed Cluster Mortality Embedded cluster birthrate within 2 kpc:  2-4 Myr -1 kpc -2 (Lada & Lada 2003) Open cluster birthrate within 2 kpc:  5-9 times the rate of 0.45 Myr -1 kpc -2 (Battinelli & Capuzzo-Dolcetta 1991)  high infant mortality rate!  <10% survive beyond 10 Myr

13. Observed Disk Mortality Rates all disks are lost in 6 Myr  need rapid planet formation outer disks? (mm mapping)  Taurus and ρ Oph show a large fraction of sources have disks massive enough to form planets  Trapezium (BIMA and OVRO) at 3mm doesn’t show disks over 0.015 M ⊙ (Mundy et al. 1995; Bally et al. 1998)  no massive disks in IC348 (outer disks dissipate in < 3 Myr; Carpenter 2000) difficult to form massive, planet forming disks in clusters or they are quickly destroyed in these environments Disk Fraction vs. Cluster Age (Haisch et al. 2001)

14. 8.4 sq. deg. M/ M ⊙ > 0.02 M/ M ⊙ > 0.03 Luhman et al. 2003a,b; Briceño et al. 2002 Variability in the Initial Mass Function Muench et al. 2003 Taurus peaks at 0.8 M ⊙ and steadily declines to lower masses IC 348 rises from high mass down to a solar mass, rises more slowly down to its max at 0.1-0.2 M ⊙ and declines to the substellar regime Probability of populations drawn from the same population is 0.01% based on a two sided K-S test.

15. IMF to the Deuterium Burning Limit IMFs for Trapezium generated with different techniques all show a broad peak between 0.1-0.6 M ⊙ with a clear decline in the substellar regime which is not an effect of incomplete sampling. Lada & Lada 2003 Deuterium Burning Limit (10 M J )

16. Relative populations by mass Taurus produces fewest high mass stars Taurus and IC 348 have comparable numbers of brown dwarfs Frequency of BDs in Trapezium is 2x that in IC 348 or Taurus Four regions have comparable relative numbers of high-to- low mass stars Taurus actual favors intermediate mass stars over Orion Luhman et al. 2003

17. Except… Clump mass spectrum in Orion and Ophiuchus is Salpeter! Johnstone et al. 2001 Motte et al. 2001

18. Theory of Embedded Clusters Numerical simulations required to follow evolution of a stellar cluster  turbulent hydrodynamical calculations to match observed properties of clouds  MHD? Simulations are challenging due to large range of scales involved (use of “sink” particles) Previous simulations just reach protostars or start after fragmentation to follow protostellar evolution

19. Bate, Bonnell & Bromm (2003) turbulent hydrodynamic simulation Collapse of a 10 K, 50 M ⊙ cloud with 3.5 million particles (!)  Minimum Jeans mass 1.1 M J  Down to opacity limit of a few MJ (approx. 0.005 M ⊙ )  Binaries as close as 10 AU  Resolved circumstellar disks down to 20 AU Roughly equal numbers of stars and brown dwarfs formed http://www.astro.ex.ac.uk/people/mbate

20. Outcome of the Simulation SimulationObservation Stars Brown Dwarfs 32 18 50:50 ratio (Reid et al. 1999) Close Binaries (< 10 AU) 7 (16% of stars formed)20% (Duquennoy & Mayor 1991) Protoplanetary Disks (resolvable = 20 AU) 40% stars (20% ejected) 17% BDs (5% ejected) 80% in Trapezium by IR excess (Lada et al. 2000) 40/300 resolved by HST (Rodmann & McCaughrean, in prep) Brown Dwarf Binaries 5%15±7% (Close et al. 2003)

21. Predicted IMF Salpeter (Γ = -1.35) for M > 0.5 M ⊙ Γ = 0.0 for 0.006 < M < 0.5 M ⊙ A characteristic mass is predicted by presence of turndown in substellar population.  Clearly seen in Trapezium data

22. What about Magnetic Fields? OMC-1 0.4mG L183 Crutcher et al. 1999 Crutcher et al. 2003 Girart et al. 1999 Magnetic fields are clearly present in massive, starless And protostellar cores, and outflows. Fielder & Mouschovias 1993

23. Magnetic Fields on Large Scales Padoan et al. 2001 Magnetized turbulent flows with Predicted polarization directions Matthews et al. 2001 Polarized emission along Orion’s massive Integral- Shaped filament Fiege & Pudritz 2000, 2001 Matthews, Fiege & Moriarty-Schieven 2001 Helical field threading a filamentary cloud Johnstone & Bally 1999

24. Preservation of Field Geometry from Clouds to Cores Lai et al. 2002 Matthews, Fiege & Moriarty-Schieven 2002Dotson et al. 2000Padoan et al. 2001

25. Preservation of Field Geometry from Clouds to Cores Padoan et al. 2001Matthews & Wilson 2002

26. Magnetic Turbulence Virial equilibrium between gravity and turbulence  Flux freezing  Expect:

27. Observations of Magnetic Field Strengths subcritical supercritical Bourke et al. 2001 McKee (1989) argued for GMCs being critical or supercritical Observations also show this supercritical condition in cores Is the magnetic field along for the ride? (Why does it look so ordered?) Basu (2000)

28. Starless and Pre-stellar “Cold” Cores: Initial Conditions of Collapse Definitions:  Pre-stellar cores are sufficiently centrally condensed that they are likely to form stars in future (Ward- Thompson et al. 1994)  Starless cores will not Characteristics:  linewidths are thermal  Very asymmetrical  evidence of external heating Ward-Thompson et al. 1999

29. Pre-stellar Cores SIS model can be ruled out (Bacmann et al. 2000) Purely thermal BE sphere central temp is much higher than the observed temp in some cases (e.g. Andre et al. 2003; Harvey et al. 2003)  Either cores are already collapsing or another support mechanism is operating Characterized by a density profile which is flat in the centre and steep toward the edge Is not solely a function of T(r) since the same profile is seen in MIR and NIR absorption surveys (e.g. Alves et al. 2001) Ward-Thompson et al. 1994

30. Radial Profiles Pre-stellar core modeled by Evans et al. 2001 as best fit by a non-isothermal BE sphere

31. Radial Profiles SIS does give the best fit to the radial density profile of B228, a Class 0 protostar (Shirley et al. 2002)

32. Cold Cores Barnard 68: The “Classic” Bonner-Ebert Sphere (Alves, Lada & Lada 2001)

33. Barnard 68 Alves et al. 2002 suggest that the velocity field of B68 is indicative of an l=2, m=2 vibrational mode

34. Summary Star Formation is rapid and cluster dominated  Cloud and star formation may have to be treated together  Both magnetic and non-magnetic turbulence simulations are promising  Observations of the large scale magnetic field strength are needed to judge its global support Initial Mass Function is Variable with a Characteristic Mass Magnetic Fields are present on core scales  Cores appear either critical or supercritical based on recent OH data  Ambipolar diffusion models predict cores to be subcritical Starless/Pre-stellar Cores are generally fit well by pressure bounded Bonner-Ebert spheres SIS works well for some Class 0 (more evolved) sources

35. What I haven’t discussed Outflows/Jets Disks  X-Winds vs. Disk Winds Chemistry HH111 These topics all involve complex modeling by themselves; We cannot yet simulate the full dynamic range of the problem.

36. Resolution is Imminent… VLT interferometer - 2003 Keck Interferometer - 2003 SubMillimeter Array - 2003 ALMA - 2007 CARMA = OVRO + BIMA - 2004

37. The Big Picture is still required. JWST JCMT SCUBA-2 - 2005 SIRTF - 2003 SOFIA - 2007 Plus: LMT, CSO, IRAM 30m, APEX, GBT can all contribute to star formation studies.

38. A Wish List for Star Formation A polarimeter on all instruments  Scientific dividends greatly outweigh fractional costs More computing power to combine nested grid simulations with input physics to follow:  Turbulence, fragmentation  Collapse, outflow, disk formation  Chemistry on appropriate scales