1. aka our last grammar lesson! 
CLAUSES
aka our last grammar lesson! 

2. Difference between phrases and clauses
A phrase is a collection of words that may have nouns or participles (which are verb forms, e.g. “smashing,” below) but it does not have a subject doing a verb. The following are examples of phrases:
leaving behind the dog
smashing into a fence
before the first test
after the devastation
between ignorance and intelligence
because of her glittering smile
There are several types of phrases, including prepositional phrases which include a preposition and an object of a preposition: “in the lodge” “to the party”
A clause is a collection of words that has a subject that is actively doing a verb. The following are examples of clauses:
since she laughs at diffident men
I despise individuals of low character
when the saints go marching in
Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid raccoon
because she smiled at him.
There are two types of clauses: main (or independent) and subordinate (or dependent)

3. MAIN/independent clause
Subject + predicate
Can stand alone
e.g. Daniel likes to read books.

4. SUBORDINATE/dependent clauses
Subject + predicate
Cannot stand alone; works only in conjunction with a main clause
e.g. Daniel likes to read books that transport the reader to another place.

5. Speaking of conjunctions…
Identify a subordinate clause by finding the subordinating conjunction!
For example…
Time: after, as soon as, before, since, until, whenever…
Place: where, wherever
Manner: as, as if, as though
Cause: as, because, inasmuch as, since, so that
Concession: although, even though, though
Condition: if, than, unless
Also relative pronouns like who, whose, whom, which, that, what, when, where, why

6. Let’s try some… After you practice, we’ll go for ice cream.
You might get hurt if you are not careful.
I know the man who lives down the street.
Because she lost her calculator, she was unable to complete the homework.

7. Types of sentences Simple sentence = main clause e.g. Kim runs.
Compound sentence = main clause + comma + conjunction + main clause
e.g. Kim runs, and her dog chases after her.
Complex sentence = main clause + subordinate clause(s)
e.g. Kim runs when she feels stressed.
Compound-complex sentence = main clause + comma + conjunction + main clause + subordinate clause(s)
e.g. Kim runs when she feels stressed, and her dog chases her.

8. Adjective Clauses
Subordinate clause that modifies a noun (or a pronoun)
Usually begins with a relative pronoun like who, whose, that, or which
e.g. The book that I lent him is overdue.
--that I lent him modifies book, so this particular subordinate clause is an adjective clause

9. Adjective clauses, cont’d
Essential clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence (duh)
e.g. I know the man who lives down the street.
--essential because it says exactly which man “I” know
Nonessential clauses add information but may be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence
e.g. The man, who lives down the street, is a dentist.
--nonessential because it can be omitted; has the feeling of
“oh, and by the way…”
NOTE: Nonessential clauses are set off by commas before and after, further emphasizing their by-the-way quality!

10. Adverb Clauses
Subordinate clauses that modify a verb, adjective, or adverb
Like adverbs themselves, these clauses answer the questions when, where, why, how, etc.
e.g. Daniel reads short stories because he likes the suspense.
--modifies “reads,” as it answers the question, why does he read?

11. Let’s try some… Everywhere she goes, she brings a camera.
While we were waiting for the pizza guy to arrive, we played poker at the kitchen table.
when
Because it was exceptionally cold, I wore my winter jacket.
why
Even if they lose by five goals, people will still love them.
under what condition
She can play piano much better than I can.
to what extent

12. Noun clauses Subordinate clause that acts as a noun
e.g. Daniel loves when the library gets a new book.
(Daniel loves a thing, and that thing is when-the-library-gets-a-new-book.)
Words that commonly introduce noun clauses:
how, however, that, what, whatever, when, where, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, why

13. Noun clauses, cont’d Can be the subject Normal: Sarah wins a prize.
Noun clause: Whoever finishes first wins a prize.
Or the direct object
Normal: The winner chooses the prize.
Noun clause: The winner chooses where we go for lunch.
Or the object of the preposition
Normal: We can go with friends.
Noun clause: We can go with whomever she wants.
Or the predicate nominative
Normal: Next week is the start of the contest.
Noun clause: Next week is when the contest begins.

14. To sum up… Adjective clauses describe a thing
e.g. Daniel reads books that transport the reader.
(this one describes books)
Adverb clauses tell when, where, why, how…
e.g. Daniel reads after he is dismissed from school. (this one tells when)
Noun clauses stand in for a thing
e.g. Daniel’s favorite part is when the main character triumphs over evil. (this one acts as a predicate nominative)