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2. Advanced SQL Functions Procedural Constructs Triggers

3. Procedural Extensions and Stored Procedures SQL provides a module language – Permits definition of procedures in SQL, with if-then- else statements, for and while loops, etc. Stored Procedures – Can store procedures in the database – then execute them using the call statement – permit external applications to operate on the database without knowing about internal details

4. Functions and Procedures SQL supports functions and procedures Functions/procedures can be written in SQL itself, or in an external programming language. Functions are particularly useful with specialized data types such as images and geometric objects. Example: functions to check if polygons overlap, or to compare images for similarity. Some database systems support table-valued functions, which can return a relation as a result. SQL also supports a rich set of imperative constructs, including Loops, if-then-else, assignment

5. SQL Functions Define a function that, given the name of a department, returns the count of the number of instructors in that department. create function dept_count (dept_name varchar(20)) returns integer begin declare d_count integer; select count (* ) into d_count from instructor where instructor.dept_name = dept_name return d_count; end Find the department name and budget of all departments with more that 12 instructors. select dept_name, budget from department where dept_count (dept_name ) > 1

6. Table Functions SQL:2003 added functions that return a relation as a result Example: Return all accounts owned by a given customer create function instructors_of (dept_name char(20) returns table ( ID varchar(5), name varchar(20), dept_name varchar(20), salary numeric(8,2)) return table (select ID, name, dept_name, salary from instructor where instructor.dept_name = instructors_of.dept_name) Usage select * from table (instructors_of (‘Music’))

7. SQL Procedures The dept_count function could instead be written as procedure: create procedure dept_count_proc (in dept_name varchar(20), out d_count integer) begin select count(*) into d_count from instructor where instructor.dept_name = dept_count_proc.dept_name end Procedures can be invoked either from an SQL procedure or from embedded SQL, using the call statement. declare d_count integer; call dept_count_proc( ‘Physics’, d_count); Procedures and functions can be invoked also from dynamic SQL SQL allows more than one function/procedure of the same name (called name overloading), as long as the number of arguments differ, or at least the types of the arguments differ

8. Procedural Constructs Compound statement: begin … end, – May contain multiple SQL statements between begin and end. – Local variables can be declared within a compound statements While and repeat statements: declare n integer default 0; while n < 10 do set n = n + 1 end while repeat set n = n – 1 until n = 0 end repeat

9. Procedural Constructs (Cont.) For loop Permits iteration over all results of a query Example: declare n integer default 0; for r as select budget from department where dept_name = ‘Music’ do set n = n - r.budget end for

10. Procedural Constructs (cont.) Conditional statements (if-then-else) SQL also supports a case statement similar to C case statement Example procedure: registers student after ensuring classroom capacity is not exceeded – Returns 0 on success and -1 if capacity is exceeded – See book for details Signaling of exception conditions, and declaring handlers for exceptions declare out_of_classroom_seats condition declare exit handler for out_of_classroom_seats begin ….. signal out_of_classroom_seats end – The handler here is exit -- causes enclosing begin..end to be exited – Other actions possible on exception

11. External Language Functions/Procedures SQL:1999 permits the use of functions and procedures written in other languages such as C or C++ Declaring external language procedures and functions create procedure dept_count_proc(in dept_name varchar(20), out count integer) language C external name ’ /usr/avi/bin/dept_count_proc’ create function dept_count(dept_name varchar(20)) returns integer language C external name ‘/usr/avi/bin/dept_count’

12. External Language Routines (Cont.) Benefits of external language functions/procedures: – more efficient for many operations, and more expressive power. Drawbacks – Code to implement function may need to be loaded into database system and executed in the database system’s address space. risk of accidental corruption of database structures security risk, allowing users access to unauthorized data – There are alternatives, which give good security at the cost of potentially worse performance. – Direct execution in the database system’s space is used when efficiency is more important than security.

13. Triggers A trigger is a statement that is executed automatically by the system as a side effect of a modification to the database. To design a trigger mechanism, we must: Specify the conditions under which the trigger is to be executed. Specify the actions to be taken when the trigger executes. Triggers introduced to SQL standard in SQL:1999, but supported even earlier using non-standard syntax by most databases.

14. Triggers Tables can have multiple triggers. The CREATE TRIGGER statement can be defined with the FOR UPDATE, FOR INSERT, or FOR DELETE clauses to target a trigger to a specific class of data modification actions. When FOR UPDATE is specified, the IF UPDATE (column_name) clause can be used to target a trigger to updates affecting a particular column. Types of trigger: – After Trigger – Multiple After Triggers – Instead Of Triggers – Mixing Triggers Type

15. Create Trigger Example: we want to send an email to the Sales Manager when an order is entered whose priority is high. When SQL is used to insert the Orders row, a trigger is used to determine the OrderPriority and send the email when the criteria is met. CREATE TABLE Orders (Ord_ID int IDENTITY, Ord_Priority varchar(10)) go CREATE TRIGGER tr_Orders_INSERT ON Orders FOR INSERT AS IF (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM inserted WHERE Ord_Priority = 'High') = 1 BEGIN PRINT 'Email Code Goes Here' END go INSERT Orders (Ord_Priority) VALUES ('High')

16. Update Trigger An UPDATE trigger is used to perform an action after an update is made on a table CREATE TRIGGER tr_Orders_UPDATE ON Orders AFTER UPDATE AS --Make sure Priority was changed IF NOT UPDATE(Ord_Priority) RETURN --Determine if Priority was changed to high IF EXISTS (SELECT * FROM inserted a JOIN deleted b ON a.Ord_ID=b.Ord_ID WHERE b.Ord_Priority <> 'High' AND a.Ord_Priority = 'High') BEGIN DECLARE @Count tinyint SET @Count = (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM inserted a JOIN deleted b ON a.Ord_ID=b.Ord_ID WHERE b.Ord_Priority <> 'High' AND a.Ord_Priority = 'High') PRINT CAST(@Count as varchar(3))+' row(s) where changed to a priority of High' END go

17. Delete Trigger The example here simply counts the number of rows in the deleted table to see how many had a priority of high CREATE TRIGGER tr_Orders_DELETE ON Orders AFTER DELETE AS --Determine if Order with a Priority of High was deleted IF EXISTS (SELECT * FROM deleted WHERE Ord_Priority = 'High') BEGIN DECLARE @Count tinyint SET @Count = (SELECT * FROM deleted WHERE Ord_Priority = 'High') PRINT CAST(@Count as varchar(3))+' row(s) where deleted whose priority was High' END go

18. Instead of Trigger An INSTEAD OF Trigger is used to perform an action instead of the one that caused the trigger to be fired. If we have an INSTEAD OF INSERT trigger defined on a table and an INSERT is executed. A row is not added to the table, but the code in the trigger is fired. CREATE TRIGGER tr_Orders_INSERT_InsteadOf ON Orders INSTEAD OF INSERT AS PRINT 'Updateable Views are Messy' go

19. Instead of Trigger INSTEAD-OF triggers are very powerful objects in SQL Server. They allow the developer to divert the database engine to do something different than what the user is trying to do. An example of this would be to add an INSTEAD-OF trigger to any table in your database that rolls back transactions on tables that you do not want modified. We must be careful when using this method because the INSTEAD-OF trigger will need to be disabled before any specified modifications can occur to this table.

20. After versus Instead of Triggers When should we use an AFTER trigger vs. INSTEAD OF trigger? If the data modification will always happen - AFTER trigger. If the data modification will never happen - INSTEAD OF trigger. If the data modification will happen more often than the alternate code - AFTER trigger. If the data modification will happen less often than the alternate code - INSTEAD OF trigger.