1. INTRODUCTORY SOCIOLOGY INSTRUCTOR: ABLO BAH COPYRIGHT (C) 2016, A BAH 6/14/2016 1 GENDER STRATIFICATION

2. 6/14/2016 2 “Thought does not become a young woman.” --Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816). Mrs. Malaprop. The Rivals, Act 1, Scene 2 “I have a brain and a uterus, and I use both.” –U.S. Representative, Patricia Schroeder

3. SEX & GENDER 6/14/2016 3 Sex Gender Patriarchy and Sexism

4. Sex 6/14/2016 4 Sex is the biological distinction between males and females. primary sex characteristics - their genitalia, and their ability to bear children and nurse. secondary sex characteristics - other physical characteristics not directly related to reproduction  general body shape, body fat, height, weight, muscular strength, the amount of body hair, and the tone of their voice.

5. Gender Gender is the social status associated with a person’s sex. SexGender Biological – being male or female Social – masculinity or femininity Biologically constructedSocially constructed uniform across societiesvaries from one society to another Passed on geneticallyLearned through socialization 6/14/2016 5

6. Importance of Gender 6/14/2016 6 1972-1994 General Social Survey cumulative findings

7. Patriarchy and Sexism 6/14/2016 7 The great majority of contemporary societies are patriarchal. (Brown, 1991; Harris, 1977). Patriarchy —a system of social relationships in which men dominate women Patriarchy is often justified by sexism. sexism — a belief that one sex is superior to the other, often used to justify patriarchy

8. Patriarchy 6/14/2016 8 In the United States, patriarchy is more common among working class families Scandinavian countries tend to be more egalitarian Muslim countries often display extreme patriarchy

9. Patriarchy and Sexism 6/14/2016 9 General Social Survey, 2000

10. Sexism by Gender, SES, and Race/Ethnicity 6/14/2016 10

11. GENDER INEQUALITIES 6/14/2016 11 Patriarchy and sexism assure that gender as a social status has a great deal to do with social stratification. In this section we will examine gender stratification—the distribution of wealth, power, and social prestige among men and women. We will see that there are dramatic differences based on gender in the workplace, the family, education, politics, and the criminal justice system. We begin with the workplace.

12. Gender and Work 6/14/2016 12 How much do women participate in the workforce? How much are women paid relative to men? What kinds of jobs do men and women have? What differences do women face in the workplace?

13. Workforce Participation 6/14/2016 13 Women's participation in the labor force increased from 29% in 1950 to 46% in 2000 and it is projected to be nearly 50% in the year 2050 (Toossi 2002).

14. Why Do Women Work More Today? 6/14/2016 14 Changing attitudes and the rise of feminism Reductions in sexual discrimination in the workplace Decreased family sizes Urbanization “Out-sourcing” child care and food preparation A higher divorce rate and a sometimes stagnant economy

15. The Gender Pay Gap 6/14/2016 15 Women on the average are paid less than men in comparable jobs.  1960 thru 1980 58 cents to 61 cents per dollar.  1985 - 65 cents per dollar  1990 - 71 cents  1995 - 74 cents  Today – roughly 77 cents Beeghley, 1980:239; Statistical Abstract 1994. Table 722; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996.

16. Gender and Work 6/14/2016 16 Why is there a gender wage gap? Perhaps the strongest factor is the fact that women tend to have different kinds of jobs than men. A number of occupations and professions have traditionally been dominated by either women or men; and the occupations most dominated by women are often regarded as “women’s work” and are sometimes perceived to have less importance (Blum, 1991). These female-dominated occupations are often called pink-collar jobs.

17. Gender and Work 6/14/2016 17

18. Pink-Collar Jobs and Prestige 6/14/2016 18

19. Gender and Work 6/14/2016 19 A second reason why women may tend to be paid less than men might be that women self-select themselves into jobs where they can better balance home and work responsibilities.  E.g., time off for sick children, reduced ability to work long hours due to childcare responsibilities, and even periods of months or years in which they withdraw from the labor market to have children (Fuchs, 1986; Schwartz, 1989). However, both of these factors—the different kinds of jobs and choosing jobs that permit meeting family responsibilities—only account for between one-half and two-thirds of the pay gap (Kemp, 1990; Fuller and Schoenberg, 1991). The remainder of the pay gap is due to one or more forms of gender discrimination.

20. Comparable Worth 6/14/2016 20 In response to this tendency to downgrade women’s work, some people have argued that we need a policy based on “comparable worth” in which jobs requiring similar levels of education and training should be paid at comparable levels regardless of whether they are predominately female or predominately male occupations. Nations such as Great Britain have adopted such policies. However, efforts to pass similar legislation in several states in the United States have generally met with failure.

21. Glass Ceilings 6/14/2016 21 glass ceilings—a barrier that, while not obvious and easily visible, blocks women’s movement into the top ranks of management. A study of 350 CEOs of the largest U.S. corporations in 1995 found that none of them was a woman (Wall Street Journal, April 12, 1995).

22. Institutional Sexism 6/14/2016 22 Institutional sexism occurs when the day-to-day operations, rules, and policies of organizations and institutions discriminate against one sex. Examples female jobs leading only to other female job preference for jobs granted to military veterans machines and tools designed for average men employer policies limiting child care organizations that limit activities of women armed forces religions

23. Sexual Harassment 6/14/2016 23 Sexual harassment—unwanted sexual advances Thirty-eight percent of women report being sexually harassed at work, while only 4% reported the incident at the time (New York Times, Oct. 11, 1991). Only 15 percent of men report being sexually harassed at work (Lawlor, 1994).

24. Gender and the Family: Women’s “Second Shift” 6/14/2016 24 Increased participation of women in the workforce has led to dramatic changes in family life. Yet traditional gender roles in which women perform most of the household work have persisted even in families where wives are employed outside the home.

25. Gender and the Family: Women’s “Second Shift” 6/14/2016 25 Women in the U.S. still do about 3 times as much domestic work as men. Husbands do “less than one-quarter of the total work done by all household members” (Nock and Kingston, 1990:136). When both outside work and household work are considered, women often end up working many more hours per day than their husbands. The result often is women who must bear all of the responsibilities of the workplace during the day, then return home to a “second shift” in which they spend many more additional hours performing child-care duties, cooking, and cleaning (Hochschild, 1989).

26. Gender and Education 6/14/2016 26 Historically and internationally  women are more likely to be illiterate than men  In developing countries, two-thirds of the women over 25 have never been to school, compared to one-half of the men. In the United States today  more women graduate from college than men. In academic positions in colleges and universities  Women are less likely to be full professors  when women are full professors they have lower average salaries than male full professors, and women are more likely to be professors in less prestigious colleges (DePalma, 1993).

27. College Enrollment 6/14/2016 27

28. Income by Education & Gender 6/14/2016 28

29. Gender and Politics 6/14/2016 29

30. Gender and Politics 6/14/2016 30