1. MODULE 8 PSYCHOLOGY 310: SPORT & INJURY PSYCHOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF MARY INSTRUCTOR: DR. THERESA MAGELKY SPRING 2016 Self-Talk in Sport Injury Rehabilitation

2. Introduction An injured athlete’s thoughts and things they say to themselves regarding their injury influences their emotions, behaviors, and recovery outcomes The extent, frequency, content, and type of self-talk can vary depending on the situation and the individual athlete

3. The Concept of Self-Talk Multiple definitions of self-talk have been proposed Self-talk is “what people say to themselves either out loud or as a small voice in their head” (Theodorakis, Weinberg, Natsis, Douma, & Kazakas, 2000) The authors define self-talk by the following guidelines:  Self-talk represents verbalizations or statements addressed to the self  It is multidimensional in nature (e.g., with frequency)  It has interpretive elements associated with the statements employed  It is dynamic  It serves as a function for the athlete (e.g., it can be instructional and/or motivational)

4. Types & Functions of Self-Talk in Sport Overt/covert self-talk Assigned and self-determined self-talk Negative and positive self-talk Instructional and motivational self-talk

5. Overt/Covert Self-Talk Self-talk ranges on a continuum from overt to covert Overt self-talk involves externally verbalized statements, allowing others to hear what is said Covert self-talk is defined as verbalizations made by a small voice inside one’s head, or an inner dialogue that cannot be heard by others Most athletes engage in one or both forms of self-talk Research is inconclusive regarding the effectiveness of overt vs. covert self talk in sport  However, an individual might exert more effort to achieve desired behaviors when statement are overtly expressed

6. Assigned & Self-Determined Self-Talk Assigned self-talk – the individual has no self- determined control over the statements (e.g., the statements are given to the athlete by someone else such as the sport medicine professional) Self-determined (freely chosen) self-talk – the individual completely determines their own statements Self-determined self-talk will likely offer more motivational benefits for the athlete  According to cognitive evaluation theory, humans have an innate desire to feel competent and self-determined  Thus, self-talk chosen by the athlete should have positive effects on their self-determined motivation

7. Negative & Positive Self-Talk Self-talk is typically conceptualized as either positive or negative Positive self-talk – is a form of praise and used to keep one’s focus of attention in the present Negative self-talk – a form of criticism, presents barriers to achieving because it is inappropriate, anxiety-provoking, and/or irrational It is suggested positive self-talk facilitates performance whereas negative self-talk is debilitating to performance

8. Instructional & Motivational Self-Talk Instructional self-talk – increases attentional focus on relevant technical aspects of performance  Aids in the execution of precision-based tasks that require skill, timing, and accuracy Motivational self-talk – increases effort, enhances confidence, and/or creates positive moods  Motivational self-talk is suggested to be more effective than instructional self-talk for the execution of strength and endurance based tasks because it is used to increase effort, enhance confidence, and/or create positive moods

9. Instructional & Motivational Self-Talk Instructional self-talk has been further divided into 2 more specific functions: 1. Skills-specific instructions – focus on the technique of a skills; might include statements (e.g., “keep the hands together”) 2. General self-talk – includes statements about strategies that are important for performance (e.g., “stay in second until the last bend”) Motivational self-talk has been further divided into 3 more specific motivational functions: 1. Motivational Arousal – use of self-talk in psyching up, relaxing, and controlling arousal 2. Motivational Mastery – mental toughness, focus of attention, confidence, and mental preparation 3. Motivational Drive – concerned with goal achievement and consequently is associated with maintaining or increasing drive and effort

10. Conceptual Framework of Self-Talk (Hardy, Oliver, & Tod, 2009) Conceptual framework of self-talk explains factors believed to mediate the self-talk performance relationship. Consists of 4 factors which influence performance: 1. Cognitive – athletes adopt self-talk for a variety of attention-based outcomes (e.g., concentration) thus manipulating self-talk may also be use to alter attentional foci 2. Motivational – use of self-talk is thought to affect the persistence of long-term goal commitment of an individual via self-talk acting as an antecedent to self-efficacy 3. Behavioral – improvements in technique with the use of self-talk 4. Affective – research suggests link between cognitive content and affect and, in turn, affect and performance (e.g., self-talk might influence anxiety in sporting performance)

11. Research on Self-Talk in Sport Injury Rehabilitation Research suggests that self-talk is useful for joint restoration, muscular strengthening, and rehearsing sport-related skills whilst injured Research has found a correlation between recovery time and the use of positive self-talk  Athletes who healed faster reported greater use of goal setting, imagery, and self-talk as compared to those who healed slower  Findings showed support for an athletes’ ability to influence and control their thoughts during injury and rehabilitation process and the positive use of self-talk during rehabilitation Study (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1993) found that 80% of Olympic wrestlers interviewed reported they used thought control strategies to cope with injuries

12. Self-Talk Techniques in Sport Injury Rehabilitation Examples of self-talk techniques in sport injury rehabilitation: Thought-stopping Reframing technique Functional self-talk Self-determined and assigned self-talk Intervention efficacy beliefs

13. Thought-Stopping Thought-stopping – used to initially stop an inappropriate (or negative thought) and then allow a more functional (or positive thought) to be used in its place Steps of Thought-Stopping: 1. Increase athlete’s awareness of inappropriate self-talk they are using (e.g., record the number of times an inappropriate or negative comment about self is made) 2. Use a trigger to stop the inappropriate thoughts/talk such as a cue word, image, or action (e.g., Say “stop” or visualize the image of a stop sign as a reminder to stop inappropriate self-talk statements 3. Use a more functional (positive) statement to replace the previous inappropriate negative self-talk

14. Reframing Technique Reframing – technique used to modify an athlete’s thoughts and self-statements (e.g., to challenge negative appraisals especially in anxiety-provoking situations)  Examples of Reframing of Self-Talk  “This is agony! I can’t believe I went in for that tackle!”  Reframe this statement to: “I can handle this, I’m tough. I am not the only person ever to be injured. The pain prevents me from doing more damage.”  “My knee is not strong enough. I need more rehab before testing it in training.”  Reframe this statement to: “My knee has been tested throughout rehabilitation and it has survived. My trainers have told me it is ready. I am ready for training.”

15. Functional Self-Talk Functional self-talk – outlined earlier in the chapter Functional self-talk is more positive (e.g., “You can do this! Only four more reps!”) Many athletes may use a mixture of both positive and negative self-talk Although not all negative self-talk is always debilitative, athletes should try to engage in more functional (positive) self talk because it is more facilitative in rehab settings

16. Self-Determined and Assigned Self-Talk Sports medicine professional may assign an athlete’s self-talk statements When possible, athletes should determine their own statements However, especially when athletes are having negative thoughts regarding their injury, they may need help in restructuring their self-talk so it is more functional Collaborating with the athlete is vital

17. Intervention Efficacy Beliefs Intervention efficacy beliefs – this has to do with the belief or expectancy that an intervention will be effective It is ineffective to use self-talk techniques with an injured athlete who does not expect that it will be useful for their rehabilitation Also, the sports medicine professional’s belief in the use of self-talk is also important for it to be effective

18. References Arvinen-Barrow, M., & Walker, N. (2013). The Psychology of Sport Injury and Rehabilitation (1 st ed.). Routledege.