2. Where did all the elements essential for life come from? How did they form into complex organisms? Chemical evolution refers to the formation of complex ORGANIC molecules from simple inorganic molecules through chemical reactions. This takes place in Earth’s oceans and lasts for less than a billion years

3.  In the 1950’s two scientists recreated the POSSIBLE conditions in Earth’s atmosphere.  This experiment showed the evolution of organic molecules  These scientists went even further showing how amino acids are formed  Why are amino acids so important?  More recently, meteorites have been found containing amino acids, meaning these compounds are found throughout space. This obviously raises questions regarding the Miller and Urey experiment

4.  This is the evolution Darwin is referring to in his work Origin of Species  Organic evolution is the evolution of species or groups of organisms.  The combination of chemical and organic evolution helps explain the steps to the formation of aerobic heterotrophs and photosynthetic autotrophs

5.  It is believed that the first organisms were heterotrophs that produced CO 2 as a by product of their metabolic processes  This gave rise to photosynthetic autotrophs, now there is OXYGEN in the atmosphere.  Many of the anaerobic heterotrophs die, but those that survived were able to perform aerobic respiration  These aerobic autotrophs and heterotrophs become the dominant species on Earth

6.  Evolution – A scientific theory that states that living species are descendants of ancestral species that were different from present day ones (the genetic changes in a population over generations)  Scientific Theory – a well-supported explanation for some aspect of the natural world that includes many observations, inferences, and tested hypotheses (it is not “just an opinion or belief”) ◦ Main difference between scientific law and theory is that a law says that something does occur while a theory attempts to explain why it occurs.

7.  Like Darwin, he also believed populations change over time  BUT, his beliefs are no longer supported  Lamarck’s ideas on evolution: 1.Believed in Spontaneous Generation 2.Simple forms of life eventually develop into more complex forms 3.Traits gained in life by experience or behavior could be passed on to offspring (Ex. Bodybuilder parents Bodybuilder baby )

8.  Darwin was 22 years old when he sailed from Great Britain on the H.M.S. Beagle.  He spent the voyage collecting thousands of specimens of the fauna and flora, observing various adaptations of organisms. He was particularly struck by the uniqueness of the fauna of the Galapagos Islands.  Eventually he released the book “On the origin of Species by Natural Selection”. ◦ (He was not the first or only person to believe that life changes over time, but he was the first to come up with the correct method by which evolution occurs.)

9. (1) Descent with Modification  Basically, the process of evolution  Living species descended with changes (modifications) from prior species  Species must be able to change over time  Ex. Darwin’s Finches

10. (2) Natural Selection “Survival of the fittest”  The process by which organisms best suited to the environment survive, reproduce, and pass their genes to the next generation.  Fitness -(1) Survive Longer, (2) Reproduce More (3) Pass on traits to next generation  Occurs in populations, not in individuals ◦ Note: It is not essential to survive longer. The longer life simply gives more time to produce more offspring. Ex. Evolution would favor someone who was 20 and had 4 kids rather than someone who is 80 with 1 kid.

11. 1. Organisms produce more offspring than can survive. 2. Genetic Variation - Individual organisms in a population have slight variations or adaptations. 3. Individuals struggle to survive, those with adaptations best suited to the environment are more likely to survive. 4. Survivors pass on genes for the adaptations to their offspring. 5. Gradually, the population’s gene pool changes and the population evolves.

12.  13 different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands  Each species has a beak that is best adapted for a certain kind of food that is found on the different islands

13.  Beetles living on brown tree bark are either brown or green.  Predator (bird) can more easily see green beetles and will catch them more often than brown.  Brown beetles live longer and produce more offspring, to whom they pass the gene for brown.

14.  Remember the theories of catastrophism and gradualism combine to form uniformitarianism Punctuated Equilibrium predicts that a lot of evolutionary change takes place in short periods of time tied to speciation events This is especially true for allopatric speciation which is when a new species forms due to geographic isolation

16.  Natural selection is an “editing” process, not a creating one  If the environment changes and there is not a suitable phenotype to survive in the new environment then the species will go extinct.  There is no amount of “trying” that can help you evolve.  Nature simply “selects” the greatest physical traits to survive in different environments and those are passed on.

17.  The next few slides are all species observed by Darwin on the Galapagos Islands that led to him create his theories of descent with modification and natural selection.

18. Video

23. Eventually get a new species Lamarck  “Acquire” new traits though use or disuse  “Acquired” traits are passed on to offspring  Evironment creates a need for certain “acquired” traits Darwin  Inheritable traits already exist  Organisms with “new” and “different” trait can pass it on to offspring  Certain traits are “selected” by nature because the organism is better able to survive

24.  1) Directional Selection  Selection that favors one extreme phenotype (physical type)  This causes this particular extreme phenotype to become much more common (the look of the population is pushed in 1 direction)  Ex. Peppered Moths

26. 2) Disruptive Selection  Selection that favors both extreme phenotypes (physical type)  This causes extreme phenotypes to become much more common (the look of the population shows extreme differences)  Ex. Darwin’s Finches

28.  3) Stabilizing Selection  Selection against the extreme phenotypes (physical type)  This causes average phenotype to become much more common (the look of the population is very similar and average)  Ex. Human weight at birth

30.  Artificial selection – Natural selection that “isn’t natural” ◦ Several species have evolved in certain ways due to the influence of humans. ◦ Ex. Dog breeding, Crops

31.  1) MUTATIONS!!  Meiosis (and sexual reproduction) gives us variation in a population that creates a range of phenotypes that can be acted upon by natural selection.  Mutations can give rise to completely new characteristics.  MUTATION: a change in a gene ◦ Remember that a gene is enough DNA to control 1 trait  On the rare occasion when mutations produce favorable traits, a population’s gene pool (all of the genes in a population) is changed because of the introduction of this new, favored trait. The population will then evolve through natural selection to show a greater percentage of the new, beneficial trait.

32.  Two Types of Mutations: (1) Changes in genes in somatic (body) cells: can affect the organism itself, but cannot be passed to sexually produced offspring. (2) Changes in genes in gametes (egg and sperm): do not affect the parent organism itself, can be passed to sexually produced offspring

33.  Mutations may result in a trait that improves an organism’s chances for survival, so that organism would be more likely to reproduce. Then the favorable mutation would be passed on to offspring.  This results in evolution.  Mutations occur very rarely (and are almost always bad), so populations evolve slowly.  NOTE: EVEN THOUGH EVOLUTION GENERALLY OCCURS SLOWLY…IT SOMETIMES CAN OCCUR RAPIDLY IF THE NEW MUTATED TRAIT IS STRONGLY FAVORED OVER ALLOTHER PHENOTYPES PRESENT IN THE POPULATION

34.  2) Genetic Drift – changes in gene pool due to chance (has greater effect on smaller populations)  Examples ◦ 1) Bottleneck effect – drastic decrease in population size may leave only certain alleles available. These alleles will quickly be perpetuated. ◦ 2) Founder effect –When a few individuals colonize a new area (same reasoning as bottleneck)

36.  3) Gene flow  Introduction or exit of alleles in a population whenever individuals enter or leave.

37.  Notice that all 3 causes for evolution (mutations, genetic drift, and gene flow) all have 1 similarity – they change the GENE POOL of the population.

38. 1) Molecular Biology  All living things use DNA and RNA.  The genetic code amongst all living things is universally the same. (In other words, the fact that the RNA codon AUG gives the amino acid MET in humans is seen in every other living thing as well)  This fact more than any other (at least to me) indicates that all living things originated from a common ancestor.

39. Molecular Biology – Continued  The closer 2 different species DNA is to one another, then the closer those 2 are related.  Which 2 species are closer related?  Species A: AACTGGCTTA  Species B: AACTAACCCG  Species C: TACTGGCTTA

40.  The remains or traces of organisms that have once lived on Earth.  Fossil Record: the history of life on Earth, based on fossils that have been discovered  The fossil record shows how organisms have changed over time and shows that the life on Earth is about 3.5 billion years old.

41.  Extinctions occur when there are major changes in the environment and species do not have the adaptations to survive.  The fossil record helps scientists to discover relationships between different groups of organisms and determine common ancestors.

42.  The Earth is divided into layers called strata.  Generally speaking, the lower the strata = the older the layer of Earth (each new layer becomes stacked on the older layer below it)  This means if two fossils are found, the fossil found in the lowest layer would be the oldest  There are also techniques for determining the absolute (or relatively exact date) of a fossil’s age Determining the age of fossils

43. Evidence for Evolution – Comparative Anatomy Convergent evolution – process by which different species evolve similar traits (SAME FUNCTION, DIFFERENT ANCESTOR) Example: Birds, bats, and moths have wings, but they did not evolve from a recent common ancestor.  Caused by: ◦ living in similar habitats / performing similar functions

44.  Structures with closely related function but do not come from the same ancestral structure ◦ Same function, different structure  Example: Birds, bats, and moths have wings, but they did not evolve from each other.

45. Divergent evolution- build up of differences between groups which can lead to the development of a new species  In other words, two different species that evolved from the same ancestor.  Caused by populations of the same species: 1.moving to two different environments or.. 2.specializing in different areas of the same environment

46.  Structures in different species that originated from common ancestor  May have different function but similar structure

47. Evidence for Evolution – Vestigial structures – no longer have a use, but may have had a use in evolutionary history.  Ex: human tail bone (coccyx) made of 4 fused vertebrae that resemble the bones in an animal’s tail.  Other examples: the appendix, and ear muscles!

48.  When two or more species have evolved together, the situation is called coevolution. Example: ◦ Insects and Flowers  Flowers provide food for insects. Insects take pollen from one flower to the next so they can reproduce.

49.  Behavioral evolution -a behavior that is selected for strongly enough that all organisms in a species exhibit this behavior because of the survival or reproductive advantages that behavior gives Examples:  The dancing of the blue footed booby may have seemed peculiar to you, but the execution of this courtship ritual determines whether or not they will reproduce.  Migration is another example of a behavioral adaptation that would be essential in the survival and ability to reproduce (if you don’t migrate, you die) of a species.

50.  Sexual selection-form of natural selection in which individuals with certain characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates (leads to sexual dimorphism – differences in males and females)  Physical Examples: Feathers of a male peacock Antlers of a male deer Humans  Behavioral Examples: Darwin Beetles Darwin Beetle VideoDarwin Beetle Video Blue footed Booby Humans