1. LANE 622 APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Prepared by Dr. Abdullah S. Al-Shehri

2. LECTURE IV
HUMAN LEARNING

3. So far, we have learned that..
Cognitive domain of human behavior plays a crucial role in the acquisition of L1 & L2.
Processes of perceiving, attending, storing, and recalling are central to the task of internalizing a language, whether L1 or L2.

4. In this lecture, we will..
Examine the general nature of human learning.
Learn about the different theories of learning.
Find out what other universal learning principles are available.
Discuss some current thoughts about ‘aptitude’ and ‘intelligence’.

5. Learning & Training
In order to achieve an integrated understanding of L2 acquisition, we need to consider the following questions:
How do human beings learn?
Are there certain basic principles that apply to all acts of learning?
Is one theory of learning “better” than another?
If so, how can we evaluate the usefulness of theory?

6. What is learning? Acquisition of knowledge. Retention of information.
Learning is the act of acquiring knowledge of a subject/skill by study, experience, or instruction. It involves:
Acquisition of knowledge.
Retention of information.
A change in behavior.
Reinforced practice.

7. Theories of Learning

8. Pavlov’s Classical Behaviorism (Behavioristic)
Formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses.
Rejection of mentalistic notion of innateness and instinct.
Adoption of classical conditioning to explain all forms of learning.
Behaviors are learned by building up series of responses.
Rigorous adherence to scientific method.
Language teaching practice was for many years influenced by behavioristic tradition.

9. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Verbal Behavior – B. F
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Verbal Behavior – B. F. Skinner 1957 (Behavioristic)
An attempt to account for human learning and behavior.
Importance of ‘stimuli’ de-emphasized.
Human behavior is controlled more by ‘reinforcers’ that follow a response.
Reinforcers are stronger aspects of learning than mere association of stimulus and response as in classical conditioning.
Absence of reinforcement leads to extinction of behavior.
Skinner’s Verbal Behavior described language as a system of verbal operants.
Audiolingual Method was an example of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior’s impact on American language teaching practices during the period 1950s – 1970s.

10. Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory (Cognitive)
Ausubel contrasted meaningful learning and rote learning.
Meaningful learning is more powerful/effective.
Rote-learned materials do not interact with cognition in a substantive way.
Rote learning results in weak retention and forgetting.
In meaningful learning students relate new knowledge to what they already know.
In rote learning students remember what they have learned by association.
‘Cognitive pruning’ is a form of systematic forgetting which clears the way for more material to enter the cognitive field.
The audiolingual method was mainly based on a behavioristic theory of conditioning that relied heavily on rote learning.
Rote learning of a foreign language is effective on a short term basis only.

11. Carl Rogers’s Humanistic Psychology (Constructivist)
This theory came as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism and stressed the importance of personal choice and responsibility.
Focus is on the affective rather than cognitive side.
This model states that, given a nonthreatening environment, a person will form a picture of reality that is congruent with reality and will grow and learn.
Emphasis is on teaching a person how to learn.
Teachers are facilitators of learning.
Teachers establish interpersonal relationship with learners.
Teachers need to communicate openly with learners.
Rejects “banking” concept of education.
Empowerment of learners.
Promotes communal learning.
In agreement with the Constructivist view of learning which refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves---each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning---as he or she learns. Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other kind.

12. Gagné’s Eight Types of Learning and Their Impact on Foreign Language Learning A Complex task such as Second Language Learning involves every one of Gagné’s levels of learning.

13. 1. Signal Learning
Individual learns to make a general diffuse response to a signal. (Behavioristic -Classical Conditioned response - Pavlov).
Human beings make a general response (emotional, cognitive, verbal, nonverbal) to language.

14. 2. Stimulus-Response Learning
Lerner acquires a precise response to a discriminated stimulus (operant). Such was the classical conditioned response of Pavlov.
Stimulus-response learning is evident in the acquisition of the sound system of a foreign language. Through a process of conditioning and trial and error, the learner makes closer and closer approximations to native pronunciation.

15. 3. Chaining
Robert Gagne developed a hierarchical theory that some types of learning are prerequisites to other kinds of learning. His research has been fruitfully used in determining the sequence of instruction. ...
This is evident in the acquisition of phonological sequences and syntactic patterns. (Note: Generative linguistics has shown that sentence structure is hierarchical and not necessarily linear).

16. 4. Verbal Association
The learner is able to learn using verbal chains.
Internal links may be selected from the individual’s previously internalized linguistic repertoire.

17. 5. Multiple Discrimination
An individual learns to make a number of different identifying responses to different stimuli which may resemble each other in physical appearance.
Multiple discrimination is necessary in L2 learning, where a word has to take several meanings, or an L1 rule is reshaped to fit L2 context.

18. 6. Concept Learning
Concept learning: (learning from examples). It is "the search for and listing of attributes that can be used to distinguish exemplars from non exemplars of various categories." Concepts are the mental categories that help us classify objects, events, or ideas where each object, event, or idea has a set of common relevant features.
Concept learning is a strategy which requires a learner to compare and contrast groups or categories that contain concept-relevant features with groups or categories that do not contain concept-relevant features.
Concept learning also refers to a learning task in which a human or machine learner is trained to classify objects by being shown a set of example objects along with their class labels. The learner will simplify what has been observed in an example. This simplified version of what has been learned will then be applied to future examples.
Concept learning includes the notion that language and cognition are inextricably interrelated. Linguistic rules are linguistic concepts that have to be acquired.

19. 7. Principle Learning A principle is a chain of two or more concepts.
A principle is a “subsumer” or a cluster of related concepts.
It is the extension of concept learning to the formation of linguistic concepts.
Linguistic rules are not isolated in rote memory. Instead, they are subsumed in a total system.

20. 8. Problem Solving A type of learning that requires “thinking”.
Previously acquired concepts and principles are consciously combined to deal with unresolved or ambiguous events.
Problem solving is evident in L2 learning as learner is faced with problematic sets of events, as difficult as algebra problems.

21. Some say “language is concept learning” and others say “language is a conditioning process” Both are correct in that part of language learning consists of each of the above types. Both are incorrect to assume that all of language learning can be so simply classified.

22. TRANSFER, INTERFERENCE, AND OVERGENERALIZATION
Human beings approach new problems with existing set of cognitive structures and, through insight, logical thinking, and various forms of hypothesis testing, call upon whatever prior experiences they have had and whatever cognitive structures they possess to attempt a solution.

23. Transfer and Interference
The carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent learning.
Positive transfer occurs when prior knowledge benefits the learning task.
Negative transfer (or interference) occurs when previous performance disrupts the performance of a second task.
In L2 learning, the role of ‘interference’ – interfering effects of the native language on the target language – has been stressed.

24. Generalization / Overgeneralization
Generalization is an important strategy in human learning.
The principle of generalization can be explained by Ausubel’s concept of ‘meaningful learning’.
A child’s learning of concepts is a process of generalization.
An L2 learner generalizes particular rules in the second language beyond legitimate bounds.
Overgeneralization is the incorrect application (negative transfer) of previously learned L2 material to a present L2 context.

25. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Two polar aspects of generalization.
Inductive is a type of reasoning which involves moving from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion.
Deductive reasoning is moving from a generalization to particular instances.
Untutored (natural) Language learning mostly involves an inductive process, in which learners infer rules from all the data around them.

26. Aptitude and Intelligence
Is there such a thing as foreign language aptitude?
If yes, what are its properties?
Can these properties be reliably measured?
Can aptitudinal factors predict success in learning L2.
What is intelligence?
How is intelligence defined in terms of L2 learning process?
What kinds of intelligence are related to foreign language learning?

27. Aptitude
Do certain people have aptitude for learning foreign languages?
Anecdotal evidence says yes.
Language Aptitude Tests (MLAT 1958) & (PLAB 1966) were designed to find that out.
Tests were independent of specific foreign languages and predictive of success in any language.
Tests were popular at first then declined.
Tests simply reflected general intelligence and academic ability of an individual.
Tests were difficult to do and considered biased.
Further efforts to construct foreign language aptitude and success have not yielded a coherent theory of language aptitude
Today, focus is headed in the direction of ‘learner characteristics’ to search for factors that make up foreign language aptitude.

28. Intelligence
Intelligence has mainly been measured in terms of linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities of a person.
According to Ausubel’s meaningful learning model, intelligence is measured by the ability to store items that would be particularly useful in building conceptual hierarchies and systematically pruning those which are not useful.
Success in second language learning may seems to boil down to memory rather than general intelligence, but, it appears that “language learning IQs” are much more complicated than just that.

29. Howard Gardner’s (1983) Theory of Intelligence
Gardner’s seven forms of intelligence:
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Spatial (ability to find one’s way around..)
Musical (ability to perceive and create music patterns)
Bodily-kinesthetic (fine motor movements)
Interpersonal (ability to understand and deal with others)
Intrapersonal (ability to develop a sense of self- identity)