1. EPSY 6315: Session 3 Birds of a feather flock together
Person-Environment Fit Theories:
Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice
Birds of a feather flock together
George Wither (1613)

2. Agenda Last Week (role of theory and assessment)
Case of Leslie an example client
Trait-factor tradition in vocational psychology
Personality dimensions (Big 5)
Holland’s Theory: Key assumptions, propositions
Holland’s Hexagon: Key constructs
Strengths and limitations
Self-Directed Search
Holland’s Occupational Classification System
Assessing consistency, differentiation, identity, congruence
Wrap-up from last week (role of theory and assessment)
Case of Leslie
The trait-factor tradition in vocational psychology
Personality dimensions (Big 5)
Holland’s Theory: Key assumptions, propositions
Holland’s Hexagon: Key constructs
Self-Directed Search/Holland’s Occupational Classification System
Assessing consistency, differentiation, identity, congruence
Holland’s theory: Strengths and limitations

3. Case of Leslie
What do you suspect is the primary basis or source of Leslie’s career problem?
What may be other significant contributing factors?
What are particular issues/questions you would like to explore with her in order to refine your hypotheses?
What would be your initial goals in working with Leslie?

4. From Chapter 3, what do you know about Leslie?
CC, Early Problem Clarification: Use of Open Questions…working with Leslie
From Chapter 3, what do you know about Leslie?
Specific information regarding:
Career & Work History
Family
Martial Information
Outline (very briefly) your initial impressions of her.
CC* Career Counseling
What specific information stuck out the most regarding:

5. Based on the dimensions we reviewed last week…
Care Counseling, Early Problem Clarification: Use of Open Questions…working with Leslie
Based on the dimensions we reviewed last week…
What ?s would you ask Leslie (in particular) for problem clarification:
Creating functional working alliance
Cognitive clarity
Readiness/motivation
Within-role/inter-role congruence
Creating functional working alliance
e.g., What do you hope will occur as a result of career counseling?
Cognitive clarity
e.g., How did you initially decide to pursue this line of work?
Readiness/motivation
e.g., Are other people concerned about your career problem? How?
Within-role/inter-role congruence
e.g., Has your career problem affected other aspects of your life? How?

6. Career Assessment: Leslie
Career counseling, “assessment” occurs through
Interview process
Through formal means (i.e., inventories, tests)
In career counseling, “assessment” occurs both through interview process and through formal means (i.e., inventories, tests)
Remember** Career assessment should be “collaborative” (i.e., based on client’s needs and problem situations)

7. Career Assessment: Leslie
Typical domains of career assessment
Interests and values
Vocational identity
Abilities/aptitudes
Occupational knowledge
Decision-making attitudes and skills
Self-efficacy beliefs/expectations
What domains of career would you like to try out with Leslie?
Why?
What is it about what you know of Leslie that may give your more “pieces” to her career problem puzzle?

8. Person-Environment Perspectives
First a…Personal Reflection
How has my context (gender, family, race/ethnicity, religion, disability status) helped to shape my career decisions?

9. The Earliest “model” of Vocational Counseling
Frank Parsons
Author of Choosing a Vocation (1909).
Established Vocational Bureau in Boston in 1908.
Parsons’ three-step model of vocational guidance
Develop clear understanding
Develop knowledge
Use “true reasoning”
Here we start seeing a psychology moving toward an understanding of the reciprocal nature that occurs between people and their environment.
Frank Parsons (lawyer, engineer, social worker/social reformer) established Vocational Bureau in Boston in Author of Choosing a Vocation (1909).
Parsons’ three-step model of vocational guidance
Develop clear understanding of personal aptitudes, abilities, interests, resources, and limitations
Develop knowledge of the requirements, conditions of success, compensations, and opportunities in different occupations
Use “true reasoning” on the relations between these two groups of facts

10. The trait-factor (TF) tradition
Parson’s “matching” model
What is a “trait”? What is a “factor”?
Traits vs. types
Type = Factor
Trait = a stable and measurable quality or characteristic
Factor = a natural grouping of similar traits
Traits are durable characteristics of a person.
Types are collections of traits that are said to occur together in some individuals. For example, we might define the macho type as a person who tries to be tough, independent, courageous, or whatever the person perceives as masculine behavior.

11. The TF Tradition: Common Assumptions
People differ
(individual differences)
Work environments differ
Reliable & valid individual & environmental differences can be assessed/measured
** From this tradition is where Holland’s theory comes from
Much of the research done at this time was a-theoretical
People differ with re to work-related abilities, interests, needs, and values (individual differences)
Work environments differ with re to their skill/ability requirements and their potentials for satisfying particular worker interests and needs
Reliable and valid individual and environmental differences can be assessed/measured

12. The TF Tradition: Common Assumptions
Career decision-making as a rational/cognitive process of reasoning
“Matching” persons with appropriate environments
Career decision-making as a rational/cognitive process of reasoning how worker traits “fit” with demands/opportunities of particular work environments
“Matching” persons with appropriate environments increases probability of positive worker outcomes (i.e., satisfaction, productivity, stability)

13. Personality: The “Big Five” factors
Neuroticism
impulse control difficulties
Extraversion
social orientation
Openness to Experience
curiosity
Agreeableness
general level of warmth
Conscientiousness
attention to detail
Personality: The “Big Five” Factors
These are 5 personality dimensions that identity and include various scales and characteristics; This is a taxonomy not a theory
Neuroticism; anxious, emotionally labile, impulsive, unpredictable
Extraversion: social oriented, derive energy from people contact, outgoing
Openness to Experience: comfortable trying new things, receptive to a broad range of new or novel experiences
Agreeableness: get along with others, warm, cooperative, helpful, flexibility and tolerance, humility, honesty
Conscientiousness: Achievement, paying attention, organized, having order, responsibility
Neuroticism
dispositions toward emotional instability; impulse control difficulties
Extraversion
social orientation, desire for affiliation and for acquiring energy through social interaction
Openness to Experience
dispositions toward curiosity, creativity, adventure, varied experiences
Agreeableness
general level of warmth, friendliness, cooperativeness
Conscientiousness
attention to detail, responsibility, control, achievement
The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal in 1961,[5] but failed to reach an academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five factor model of personality, which Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization.[6] These five overarching domains have been found to contain and subsume most known personality traits and are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits.[7] These five factors provide a rich conceptual framework for integrating all the research findings and theory in personality psychology. The Big Five traits are also referred to as the "Five Factor Model" or FFM,[1] and as the Global Factors of personality.[8]
NEO- BIG FIVE INVENTORY BY COSTA AND MACRAE 1985

14. Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice: Fundamental Questions
What characteristics of person and environments lead to:
Positive vocational outcomes ?
Negative outcome (e.g., indecision)?
career stability or change over the life span?
Most effective ways of providing assistance to people with career concerns?
What characteristics of person and environments lead to positive vocational outcomes (e.g., satisfying career decisions)?/ Characteristics of persons and environments lead to negative outcome (e.g., indecision)?
What characteristics of person and environments lead to career stability or change over the life span?
What are the most effective ways of providing assistance to people with career concerns?

15. Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice: Key Assumptions and Propositions
Vocational choice is an expression of personality
6 discrete work personality types
6 six discrete work environment types
Optimal work choices & adjustment levels based on/predicted by compatibility between:
Person's Work Work Environment
Vocational choice is an expression of personality. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills/abilities, express preferred attitudes/values, and take on agreeable problems and roles
There are six discrete work personality types
There are six discrete work environment types
Optimal work choices and adjustment levels are predicted by the compatibility between the person’s work type and the occupation’s environment type

16. Work Personality Types
Realistic (R)
Work with hands, machines, outdoors; build, repair; practical, “how to” orientation
Investigative (I)
Work with ideas, abstract problems; science/math; analytic “why” orientation
Artistic (A)
Self-expression via artistic media; art, music, writing/drama; unstructured, non-conforming, creative orientation
Holland’s theory wanted to place people according to types based on the types of occupations they were drawn to. He is calling attention to the existence of distinct types and that people are a combination of type characteristics

17. Work Personality Types
Social (S)
Work with people and people problems; teach, guide/help, counsel; empathic/relational/service orientation
Enterprising (E)
Persuade others to buy, sell, accept; entrepreneurial/status orientation
Conventional (C)
Work with, order, and manage data/information; methodical, structured, organizational orientation
Holland’s theory wanted to place people according to types based on the types of occupations they were drawn to. He is calling attention to the existence of distinct types and that people are a combination of type characteristics

18. Holland's 4 Main Assumptions
#1 People can be described in terms of their resemblance to 6 personality types
RIASEC
#2 Environments can be categorized across 6 types
#3 People search for work environments that match skills, abilities*
#4 P X E = Behavior
4 assumptions:
Individuals can be described in terms of their resemblance to 6 personality types RIASEC; each with its’ own set of attitudes and skills used in response to problems in the environment, No true pure type or at least it’s rare, more typical to be a combination of types
Environments can be categorized across 6 types… RIASEC; environment is determined by dominant type of the individuals who make up the environment
People search for environments that let them exercises their skills and abilities, attitudes, values and goals (not always the case though)*
P interacts with E to produce behavior
* We know this is not always the case

19. Holland Types: Occupational Examples
Realistic: Working with one's hands/body, with tools, machines, and things; practical, mechanically inclined, and physical, not how but why it works. Hand’s on work
Investigative: Working with theory and information, analytical, intellectual, scientific, wanting to know why, want to generate new knowledge
Artistic: Non-conforming, original, independent, chaotic, creative, want to express what is unique about themselves, people that prefer the absence of structure, find it irritating where they have to follow a scripted problem solving procedure, individualistic
Social: Cooperative/non-competitive environments, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing, guiding and assisting
Enterprising: Competitive environments, status, hierarchy, leading, persuading, selling, dominating, motivated by power, wealth, status
Conventional: Precise, perfect attention to detail, orderly, organizing, likes to work with data, status
Realistic
Machinist, mechanic, electrician, plumber, farmer
Investigative
Mathematician, biologist, physicist, research scientist, systems analyst
Artistic
Artist, playwright, novelist, actor/actress
Social
Teacher, counselor, social worker, nurse, coach
Enterprising
Salesperson, lawyer/politician, hotel/restaurant manager, sports agent
Conventional
Accountant, postal worker, computer programmer, office worker

20. Holland’s Hexagon 6 types/themes form a hexagon
**Interest patterns ≠ single pure type BUT a combination of 2 or more themes**
Types adjacent to one another = share similarities
Types directly opposite of one another = most dissimilar
Types adjacent to one another share some similarities
Types directly opposite of one another on the hexagon are most dissimilar
People’s interest patterns seldom represent a single “pure” type but instead reflect a combination of 2 or more themes
3 functions of the structure:
Defines consistency in person’s interest by reference relationship of primary, secondary and tertiary code types in the hexagon
Defines amount of consistency in the environment
Defines amount of congruence between P & E by providing comparisons of distance between person type and environment type

21. Holland’s Hexagon Investigative Realistic Things Ideas Conventional
Artistic
Data
People
Enterprising
Social

22. Holland Code Types
Code type = most dominant themes in a person’s (or environment’s) work personality (e.g., RIS, ASE, ECR)
Work environment code type is obtained from: Holland’s Occupational Classification System Analysis
Person’s code is obtained from: interest assessment (e.g., SDS, SII)
A code type indicates the most dominant themes in a person’s (or environment’s) work personality (e.g., RIS, ASE, ECR)
Person’s code is obtained through interest assessment (e.g., SDS, SII)
Work environment code type is obtained through occupational analysis (Holland’s Occupational Classification System)
Person’s code type may yield more specific information about preferences for particular roles, activities within broader occupational groupings
Work environment code type may yield more specific information about particular job functions, settings, responsibilities

23. Selected Occupational Code Types in HOCS
Realistic Occupations
RAE Floral Designer, Stone Carver
RIE Machinist, Electrician
RSC Mail Handler, Bicycle Repairer
Investigative Occupations
ISC Microbiologist, Market Research Analyst
IRE Anthropologist, Astronomer
ISR Experimental Psychologist, Dentist
Artistic Occupations
ASE Composer, Art Teacher
AIR Architect, Landscape Architect
AER Choreographer, Art Director

24. Selected Occupational Code Types in HOCS, continued
Social Occupations
SEC Vocational rehab counselor, Personnel Manager
SIA Clinical/Counseling Psychologist, Registered Nurse
SAE Career Counselor, Secondary school teacher
Enterprising Occupations
ERI Chemical Equipment sales, Agri-business manager
ESR Claims Adjuster, Athletic Coach
ECS Tax Accountant, Mutual Fund Manager
Conventional Occupations
CRS Accountant, Parts Assembler
CSE Bank Teller, Insurance Clerk
CEI Customs Inspector, Postal Inspector

25. Holland’s Theory: Key Constructs
Consistency
Types next to each other show “consistent” pattern (RC)
Diametrically opposed themes [e.g., RS] show“inconsistent” pattern (CA)
Inconsistent code types signal conflicting work interests/motivations
Differentiation
Particular interest theme is more prominent than another theme in person’s (or environment’s) overall code type
The more differentiated the theme, the more distinct/clear the interest are
Consistency
Types adjacent (next to one another) indicate a “consistent” pattern (RC)
Diametrically opposed themes [e.g., RS] indicate an “inconsistent” pattern (CA)
Inconsistent code types signal conflicting work interests/motivations
Differentiation
Refers to the degree to which a particular interest theme is more prominent than another theme in a particular person’s (or environment’s) overall code type
The more differentiated the theme, the more distinct/clear the interest are

26. Holland’s Theory: Key Constructs
Identity
Person has clear, stable understanding of interests & goals
Undifferentiated interests are related to low vocational identity
Congruence
Person’s code type matches work code type
Congruent work/career choices should be related to higher satisfaction, success, and job stability
Identity
Refers to the degree to which person has clear, stable understanding of his/her interests and goals
Undifferentiated interests are related to low vocational identity
Congruence
Refers to the degree to which person’s code type matches a particular occupation’s code type
Congruent work/career choices should be related to higher satisfaction, success, and job stability

27. Holland’s Self-Directed Search (SDS)
Assist persons to identify code types
A measure of interests & perceived competencies
Not objective abilities!
Component domains
Occupational Daydreams
Preferred Activities
Perceived Competencies
Preferred Occupations
Skill-related self-estimates
Developed to assist persons in identifying their particular code types
A measure of interests and perceived competencies, but not of objective abilities!
Component domains
Occupational Daydreams
Preferred Activities
Perceived Competencies
Preferred Occupations
Skill-related self-estimates

28. Assessing Consistency*
Examine first two letters of Summary Code
High consistency (3) – letters are adjacent on the hexagon (e.g., SA)
Moderate consistency (2) – letters are neither adjacent nor opposite (e.g., (SC)
Low consistency (1) – letters are opposite on another on the hexagon (e.g., AC)

29. Assessing Differentiation*
Examine raw scores for each type/theme
Rule of “8” (standard error of measurement)
A theme score that is 8 or more points higher than the next highest theme score indicates a differentiated theme

30. Assessing Congruence*
Multiple congruence indexes available
Compare person’s code type with occupational code type (HOCS)
Closer correspondence between person & occupation code types = higher congruence
Use congruence information to promote career exploration
Multiple congruence indexes available
Compare person’s code type with occupational code type (HOCS)
The closer the correspondence between person and occupation code types, the higher the predicted congruence
Using congruence information to promote career exploration

31. Assessing vocational identity*
Instrument: My Vocational Situation (MVS, Holland, Gottfredson, & Power)
Self-report measure of vocational identity
Item examples (True vs. False format)
“I don’t know what my major strengths and weaknesses are”
“No single occupation appeals strongly to me”
Higher scores = greater clarity about self & career knowledge
Low scores = uncertain self, occupational knowledge
Instrument: My Vocational Situation (MVS, Holland, Gottfredson, & Power)
self-report measure of vocational identity
MVS item examples (True vs. False format)
“I don’t know what my major strengths and weaknesses are”
“No single occupation appeals strongly to me”
Higher scores indicate greater clarity regarding self and career knowledge
Low scores indicate uncertain self, occupational knowledge, perceived barriers to choice
Identity is related to interest consistency, differentiation, and congruence

32. Nature of Career Problems: A Holland Theory View
Choice Difficulties
Person does not have
clear understanding of work personality type or congruent occupations
Person has
undifferentiated personality type
inconsistent code type
Adjustment Difficulties
Person has made
inappropriate (incongruent) choices
appropriate (initial) choice but in (incongruent) environment
Role of career counseling, career counselor
Choice Difficulties
Person does not have a clear understanding of own work personality type or of potentially congruent occupations (lacks self- and/or occupational awareness; lacks vocational identity)
Person has an undifferentiated personality type
Person has an inconsistent code type
Adjustment Difficulties
Person has made inappropriate (incongruent) choice that predicts dissatisfaction, motivation problems, etc.
Person has made appropriate (initial) choice but not finds self in different (incongruent) environment as a result of job/organizational change, transfer, promotion
Role of career counseling, career counselor
Assess client’s work personality type
Consider appropriateness of type with current work environment or environments being considered
Educate the client regarding the importance of “congruence”
Encourage exploration of congruent alternatives

33. Holland’s Theory: Strengths
Logical, internally consistent, understandable
Simple, elegant
Key constructs clearly defined & measured
Generated considerable research base
Prominently influenced career assessment/practice
An appealing aspect of Holland’s theory is that structurally speaking it seems to really represent work environments very well and work typologies too. We see cross-cultural influences and consistency and stability with this taxonomy.

34. Holland’s Theory: Limitations
How do types develop?
May reinforce traditional gender role influences in career
Heavily focuses on choice
Research support for congruence hypothesis is mixed
Major Criticisms:
Occupational Segregation Problem
Holland can do a good job presenting a picture of the world of work, yet the world of work is not equitable:
People may be cornered to sections of the hexagon based on growing up, circumstances; Using this construct to match people we may be cornering them into a section
H-response: Essence of a good theory is to shed light on the reality of the world he does not dispute the fact the world of work is equitable, yet how we use the construct moves us to different areas of intervention
Not everyone has the chance to make concrete choices, we should ask people questions about their prior experiences, educational histories and test out a functional hypothesis is the person’s types an outcome of free unfettered choice…. Help people understand and then challenge
Women underestimate and men overestimate their abilities…
How do people know what their abilities are? Making automatic non-reflective judgments, may lead to paths that may be unfulfilling
Doesn’t explain how types develop
May reinforce traditional gender role influences in career choice
Focuses heavily on choice; doesn’t emphasize process/ developmental dynamics
Research support for congruence hypothesis is mixed; suggests that variables in addition to interest type are implicated in the prediction of choice, satisfaction, and occupational stability

35. Holland’s Theory: Some Considerations
Are the things that attract people to occupations the same things that keep the person committed over time?
Environment may change over time
People & environments are in a co-constructing dynamic
Characteristics that may impact our stability
What if it’s not just about match?
Flexibility and tolerance

36. Holland’s Theory: Leslie’s Case
Investigative, Social and Conventional
I: Feeling challenged
S: working with others, tutoring
C: attention to detail
Where did these code types come from?
Hint: What does Holland say?
What seems to contribute to her indecision?

37. Holland’s Theory: Goal of Interventions
Assessment
Identify client's mode of interacting w/ environment
Is it consistent, congruent, differentiated?
Determine amount of time needed with client
Use the client’s code type to in-session & outside of session activities
Assessment: to understand the client and the environment type!
Identify client's mode of interacting w/ the world
Is it consistent, congruent, differentiated?
Determine amount of time needed with client
Use the client’s code type to inform homework activities…(helps with “in-session” behavior)
Aspirations?
Patterns btw code type and behavior

38. For next time … Review this class material
Leslie Career Genogram
Role Play
Developmental perspectives: (Super, Gottfredson)
S & F: 8, 9
Magnuson & Star (2000)