1. Net 221D:Computer Networks Fundamentals
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking
Lecture 4: Data Link Layer:

2. Functions of the Data Link Layer
The data link layer uses the services of the physical layer to send and receive bits over communication channels. It has a number of functions, including:
Framing
Addressing ( MAC address)
Flow control (Regulating the flow of data so that slow receivers are not swamped )
Error control (Dealing with transmission errors )
Media access control.
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

3. Cont.
To accomplish these goals, the data link layer takes the packets it gets from the
network layer and encapsulates them into frames for transmission.
Each frame contains a frame header, a payload field for holding the packet, and a frame trailer
Frame Header contains the physical address of the next receiving node
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

4. Physical Address (MAC address )
It is knwon as link address .
It is the address of a node as defined by its LAN.
The size and format of the address depends on the network.
Ethernet uses 6-bytes (48-bits)  NIC
LocalTalk (Apple) uses 1-byte dynamic address
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking “

5. Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
The data link layer provides hop-to-hop delivery.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

6. Framing
The data link layer needs to pack bits into frames, so that each frame is distinguishable from another.
Our postal system practices a type of framing.
The simple act of inserting a letter into an envelope separates one piece of information from another; the envelope serves as the delimiter.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

7. Cont.
Breaking up the bit stream into frames is more difficult than it at first appears.
A good design must make it easy for a receiver to find the start of new frames while using little of the channel bandwidth.
We will look at three methods:
Byte count.
Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
Flag bits with bit stuffing.
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

8. A character stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error.
1. Byte count
The first framing method uses a field in the header to specify the number of
bytes in the frame.
A character stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error.
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

9. 2. Flag bytes with byte stuffing
A flag byte, is inserted as both the starting and ending delimiter.
Two consecutive flag bytes indicate the end of one frame and the start of the next.
Thus, if the receiver ever loses synchronization
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

10. Byte Stuffing However, there is a still a problem we have to solve.
It may happen that the flag byte occurs in the data, especially when binary data such as photographs or songs are being transmitted.
One way to solve this problem is to have the sender’s data link layer insert a special escape byte (ESC) just before each ‘‘accidental’’ flag byte in the data.
The data link layer on the receiving end removes
the escape bytes before giving the data to the network layer. This technique is called byte stuffing.
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

11. 3. Flag bits with bit stuffing.
Framing can be also be done at the bit level, so frames can contain an arbitrary number of bits made up of units of any size.
It was developed for the once very popular HDLC (Highlevel Data Link Control) protocol.
Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern, or 0x7E in hexadecimal.
Whenever the sender’s data link layer encounters five consecutive 1s in the data, it automatically stuffs a 0 bit into the outgoing bit stream (bit stuffing)
When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming 1 bits, followed by a 0 bit, it automatically destuffs (i.e., deletes) the 0 bit.
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

12. Error control
How to make sure all frames are eventually delivered to the network layer at the destination and in the proper order.
Assume for the moment that the receiver can tell whether a frame that it receives contains correct or faulty information (using error detection and correction techniques.
The usual way to ensure reliable delivery is to provide the sender with some feedback about what is happening at the other end of the line.
Typically, the protocol calls for the receiver to send back special control frames bearing positive or negative acknowledgements about the incoming frames.
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

13. Cont.
If the sender receives a positive acknowledgement about a frame, it knows the frame has arrived safely.
On the other hand, a negative acknowledgement means that something has gone wrong and the frame must be retransmitted again.
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

14. Error detection and correction
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

15. 1. Parity Check The most common and least expensive.
Simple or Two Dimensional.
How does it work?
A k-bit dataword is changed to an n-bit codeword where n = k + 1.
The extra bit, called the parity bit, is selected to make the total number of 1s in the codeword even.
Example:
Assume the sender sends the dataword Since the number of 1's is odd then the parity bit is equal to 1 and the codeword for this dataword is
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

16. 1. Parity Check
Simple parity check can detect all single-bit errors. It can detect burst errors only if the total number of errors in each data unit is odd.
A better approach is the two-dimensional parity check which organizes the data units into table (rows and columns). The parity bit for each column is Calculated and added to the table as a new row (column parity)
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

17. Two-dimensional parity check
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18. 2. Cyclic Redundancy Check
In a cyclic code, if a codeword is cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is another codeword.
Example:
if is a codeword and we cyclically left-shift, then is also a codeword.
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19. 1919 Table 10.6: A CRC code with C(7, 4)
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10.19

20. 10.# Figure 10.14: CRC encoder and decoder 10.20
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10.20

21. The Process of CRC
At the Sender:
the encoder, the dataword has k bits (4 here).The codeword has n bits ( 7).
The size of the dataword is augmented by adding n-k (3 here) 0s to the right-hand size of the word.
The generator uses a divisor of size n-k+1 (4 here), predefined and agreed upon.
The generator divides the augmented dataword by the divisor ( modulo-2 division).
The reminder is appended to the dataword to create the codeword.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking
10.21

22. The decoder does the same division process as the encoder.
The Process of CRC
At the Receiver:
The decoder does the same division process as the encoder.
The reminder of the division is the syndrome.
If the syndrome is all 0s, there is no error, the dataword separated from the received codeword and accepted.
Otherwise, everything is discarded.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking
10.22

23. 10.# Figure 10.15: Division in CRC encoder 10.23
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10.23

24. 10.# Figure 10.16: Division in the CRC decoder for two cases 10.24
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10.24

25. 3. CHECKSUM
Checksum is an error-detecting technique that can be applied to a message of any length.
Like CRC, checksum based on the concept of redundancy.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

26. Checksum Concept
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27. Example
Suppose the message is a list of five 4-bit numbers that we want to send to a destination.
In addition to sending these numbers, we send the sum of the numbers.
For example, A sender wants to send the set of numbers
(7, 11, 12, 0, 6) the process will be as follow:
sum up the numbers = = 36
Then convert the decimal number 36 in binary = (100100)2.
To change it to a 4-bit number we add the extra leftmost bit to the right four bits as shown below. This is called sum in one’s complement .
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

28. Example Cont.
Then complements the result to get the checksum.
6= ( 0110) 2 , the complement of 6 = = 9
Or (1001)2 =9 = (1001)2
The sender sends the five data numbers and the checksum (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 9).
If there is no corruption in transmission, the receiver receives (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 9) and adds them in one’s complement to get 15.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

29. 10.# Figure 10.16: Example 10.24 100100 36 101101 45 10 10 _________ 10
_________ 10
_________
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10.29

30. Flow Control
Another important design issue that occurs in the data link layer (and higher layers as well) is what to do with a sender that systematically wants to transmit frames faster than the receiver can accept them.
This situation can occur when the sender is running on a fast, powerful computer and the receiver is running on a slow, low-end machine.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

31. Cont. Two approaches are commonly used.
In the first one, feedback-based flow control, the receiver sends back information to the sender giving it permission to send more data, or at least telling the sender how the receiver is doing.
In the second one, rate-based flow control, the protocol has a built-in mechanism that limits the rate at which senders may transmit data, without using feedback from the receiver.
In this chapter we will study feedback-based flow control schemes, primarily because rate-based schemes are only seen as part of the transport layer
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

32. Flow control schemes
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

33. NOISELESS CHANNELS
Let us first assume we have an ideal channel in which no frames are lost, duplicated, or corrupted.
We introduce two protocols for this type of channel.
Simplest Protocol
Stop-and-Wait Protocol
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34. Figure 11.6 The design of the simplest protocol with no flow or error control
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35. Algorithm 11.1 Sender-site algorithm for the simplest protocol
Algorithm Receiver-site algorithm for the simplest protocol
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36. Figure 11.7 Flow diagram for Example 11.1
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37. Figure 11.8 Design of Stop-and-Wait Protocol
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38. Figure 11.9 Flow diagram for Example 11.2
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39. NOISY CHANNELS
Although the Stop-and-Wait Protocol gives us an idea of how to add flow control to its predecessor, noiseless channels are nonexistent.
We discuss three protocols in this section that use error control.
Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request(ARQ)
Go-Back-N ARQ
Selective Repeat ARQ
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

40. 1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Error correction in Stop-and-Wait ARQ is done by keeping a copy of the sent frame and retransmitting of the frame when the timer expires.
we use sequence numbers to number the frames.
The sequence numbers are based on modulo-2 arithmetic.
the acknowledgment number always announces in modulo-2 arithmetic the sequence number of the next frame expected.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

41. Figure 11.10 Design of the Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol
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42. Example 11.3
Figure shows an example of Stop-and-Wait ARQ. Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged. Frame 1 is lost and resent after the time-out. The resent frame 1 is acknowledged and the timer stops. Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged, but the acknowledgment is lost. The sender has no idea if the frame or the acknowledgment is lost, so after the time-out, it resends frame 0, which is acknowledged.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

43. Figure 11.11 Flow diagram for Example 11.3
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44. Example 11.4
Assume that, in a Stop-and-Wait ARQ system, the bandwidth of the line is 1 Mbps, and 1 bit takes 20 ms to make a round trip. What is the bandwidth-delay product? If the system data frames are 1000 bits in length, what is the utilization percentage of the link?
Solution
The bandwidth-delay product is
20,000bits
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

45. Example 11.4 (continued)
The system can send 20,000 bits during the time it takes for the data to go from the sender to the receiver and then back again. However, the system sends only 1000 bits. We can say that the link utilization is only 1000/20,000, or 5 percent. For this reason, for a link with a high bandwidth or long delay, the use of Stop-and-Wait ARQ wastes the capacity of the link.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

46. 2. Go-Back-N ARQ
In the Go-Back-N Protocol, the sequence numbers are modulo 2m, where m is the size of the sequence number field in bits.
The send window is an abstract concept defining an imaginary box of size 2m − 1 with three variables: Sf, Sn, and Ssize.
The send window can slide one or more slots when a valid acknowledgment arrives.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

47. Cont.
The receive window is an abstract concept defining an imaginary box of size 1 with one single variable Rn.
The window slides when a correct frame has arrived; sliding occurs one slot at a time.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

48. Figure 11.12 Send window for Go-Back-N ARQ
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49. Figure 11.13 Receive window for Go-Back-N ARQ
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50. Figure 11.14 Design of Go-Back-N ARQ
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51. Figure 11.15 Window size for Go-Back-N ARQ
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52. In Go-Back-N ARQ, the size of the send window must be less than 2m;
Note
In Go-Back-N ARQ, the size of the send window must be less than 2m;
the size of the receiver window is always 1.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

53. Example 11.7
Figure shows what happens when a frame is lost. Frames 0, 1, 2, and 3 are sent. However, frame 1 is lost. The receiver receives frames 2 and 3, but they are discarded because they are received out of order.
The sender receives no acknowledgment about frames 1, 2, or 3.
Its timer finally expires. The sender sends all outstanding frames (1, 2, and 3) because it does not know what is wrong.
This means that when ACK 2 arrives, the sender is still busy with sending frame 3.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

54. Figure 11.17 Flow diagram for Example 11.7
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

55. 3. Selective Repeat ARQ
Go-Back-N ARQ simplifies the process at the receiver site.
The receiver keeps track of only one variable, and there is no need to buffer out-of-order frames; they are simply discarded.
However, this protocol is very inefficient for a noisy link. In a noisy link a frame has a higher probability of damage, which means the resending of multiple frames.
This resending uses up the bandwidth and slows down the transmission.
For noisy links, there is another mechanism that does not resend N frames when just one frame is damaged; only the damaged frame is resent.
This mechanism is called Selective RepeatARQ.
Computer networks / Andrew S. Tanenbaum-- 5th ed

56. Figure 11.18 Send window for Selective Repeat ARQ
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

57. Figure 11.19 Receive window for Selective Repeat ARQ
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58. Figure 11.20 Design of Selective Repeat ARQ
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59. Example 11.8
This example is similar to Example 11.3 in which frame 1 is lost. We show how Selective Repeat behaves in this case. Figure shows the situation. One main difference is the number of timers. Here, each frame sent or resent needs a timer, which means that the timers need to be numbered (0, 1, 2, and 3). The timer for frame 0 starts at the first request, but stops when the ACK for this frame arrives. The timer for frame 1 starts at the second request, restarts when a NAK arrives, and finally stops when the last ACK arrives. The other two timers start when the corresponding frames are sent and stop at the last arrival event.
A NAK is sent once for each window position and defines the first slot in the window.
In Selective Repeat, ACKs are sent when data are delivered to the network layer. If the data belonging to n frames are delivered in one shot, only one ACK is sent for all of them.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

60. Figure 11.23 Flow diagram for Example 11.8
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking

61. References
Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition , The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapters 10,11.
Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and Networking