1. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 4.1 Elements and Symbols 1 Learning Goal Given the name of an element, write its correct symbol; from the symbol, write the correct name. Elements are pure substances from which all other things are built cannot be broken down into simpler substances are listed on the inside front cover of this text

2. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Some Elements and Their Names https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUDDiWtFtEM https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LcUNYGdNKlo Element names come from planets, mythological figures, minerals, colors, geographic locations, and famous people. 2

3. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemical Symbols Chemical symbols represent names of elements consist of one to two letters and start with capital One-Letter Symbols Two-Letter Symbols C carbon Co cobalt N nitrogen Ca calcium F fluorine Al aluminum O oxygen Mg magnesium 3

4. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Names and Symbols: Common Elements 4

5. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemical Symbols from Latin Names Ag (argentum)silver, from argentum Au (aurum) gold, from aurum 5

6. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Write the correct chemical symbols for each of the following elements: A. iodine B. iron C. magnesium D. zinc E. nitrogen 6

7. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Write the correct chemical symbols for each of the following elements: A. iodine= I B. iron= Fe C. magnesium= Mg D. zinc= Zn E. nitrogen= N 7

8. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Give the names of the elements with the following symbols: A. P B. Al C. Mn D. H E. K 8

9. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Give the names of the elements with the following symbols: A. P= phosphorus B. Al= aluminum C. Mn= manganese D. H= hydrogen E. K= potassium 9

10. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 4.2 The Periodic Table The periodic table organizes 118 elements into groups with similar properties and places them in order of increasing atomic mass. Learning Goal Use the periodic table to identify the group and the period of an element; identify the element as a metal, a nonmetal, or a metalloid.

11. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Groups and Periods On the periodic table, elements are arranged according to similar properties groups contain elements with similar properties in vertical columns periods are horizontal rows of elements, counted from top to bottom of the table as Periods 1−7

12. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table of Elements Groups Periods

13. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Group Numbers Group numbers are written at the top of each vertical column and they use the letter A for representative elements (Groups 1A–8A) use the letter B for transition elements (Groups 3B–12B) An alternative system assigns numbers of 1–18 to all of the groups from left to right across the periodic table Because both systems are currently in use, they are both shown on the periodic table in this text and are included in our discussions of elements and group numbers.

14. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Groups and Periods

15. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Names of Groups

16. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Alkali Metals Group 1A, the alkali metals, includes lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), and cesium (Cs).

17. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Halogens Group 7A, the halogens, includes chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I). 17

18. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Identify the element described by each of the following: 1. Group 7A, Period 4 A. BrB. ClC. Mn 2. Group 2A, Period 3 A. berylliumB. boron C. magnesium 3. Group 5A, Period 2 A. phosphorus B. arsenicC. nitrogen

19. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Identify the element described by each of the following: 1. Group 7A, Period 4 A. Br 2. Group 2A, Period 3C. magnesium 3. Group 5A, Period 2C. nitrogen

20. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids The heavy zigzag line separates metals and nonmetals. Metals are located to the left. Nonmetals are located to the right. Metalloids are located along the heavy zigzag line between the metals and nonmetals.

21. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids and the Periodic Table Insert figure 4.6 page 102 Classification by type:

22. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Characteristics of Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Metals are shiny and ductile are good conductors of heat and electricity Nonmetals are dull, brittle, and poor conductors are good insulators Metalloids are better conductors than nonmetals but not as good as metals are used as semiconductors and insulators

23. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Comparing a Metal, Nonmetal, and Metalloid

24. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid. A. sodium B. chlorine C. silicon D. iron E. carbon

25. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid. A. sodiummetal B. chlorinenonmetal C. silicon metalloid D. ironmetal E. carbonnonmetal

26. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Select all of the elements that match each description. A. Metals in Group 4A Sn, Pb, C, Si, Ge B. Nonmetals in Group 5A As, Sb, Bi, N, P C. Metalloids in Group 4A C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb

27. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Select all of the elements that match each description. A. Metals in Group 4A Sn, Pb B. Nonmetals in Group 5A N, P C. Metalloids in Group 4A Si, Ge

28. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemistry Link to Health Insert picture of periodic table with elements highlighted bottom of page 103

29. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 4.3 The Atom An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that element. Learning Goal Describe the electrical charge and location in an atom for a proton, a neutron, and an electron.

30. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Dalton’s Atomic Theory In Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms are tiny particles of matter of an element are similar to each other and different from those of other elements of two or more different elements combine to form compounds are rearranged to form new combinations in a chemical reaction Atoms are never created or destroyed during a chemical reaction.

31. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electrical Charges in an Atom Atoms contain subatomic particles. Protons have a positive (+) charge. Electrons have a negative (–) charge. Neutrons are neutral. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

32. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. J. J. Thomson’s Cathode Ray Experiment Thomson realized that these cathode rays contained negatively charged particles particles (now called electrons) had a much smaller mass than the atom Thomson proposed a “plum-pudding” model of the atom in which protons and electrons were randomly distributed in a positively charged cloud like plums in a pudding.

33. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. J. J. Thomson’s Cathode Ray Experiment

34. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment In Rutherford’s gold foil experiment, positively charged particles were aimed at atoms of gold mostly went straight through the atoms were deflected only occasionally Conclusion: There must be a small, dense, positively charged nucleus in the atom that deflects positive particles that come close.

35. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

36. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Structure of the Atom An atom consists of a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons electrons in a large, empty space around the nucleus

37. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Mass of the Atom Atomic Mass Unit One atomic mass unit (amu) has a mass equal to one-twelfth of the mass of the carbon-12 atom. A proton has a mass of about 1 (1.007) amu. A neutron has a mass of about 1 (1.008) amu. An electron has a very small mass, 0.000 549 amu.

38. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Subatomic Particles in the Atom

39. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Which of the following subatomic particles fits each of the descriptions below? proton, neutron, electron A. found outside the nucleus B. has a positive charge C. has mass but no charge

40. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Which of the following subatomic particles fits each of the descriptions below? proton, neutron, electron A. found outside the nucleuselectron B. has a positive chargeproton C. has mass but no chargeneutron

41. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 4.4 Atomic Number and Mass Number All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and the same atomic number. Learning Goal Given the atomic number and the mass number of an atom, state the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

42. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Number The atomic number is a whole number specific for each element is the same for all atoms of an element is equal to the number of protons in an atom appears above the symbol of an element in the periodic table Atomic number Symbol 11 Na

43. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. The atomic number represents the number of protons. For example, the atomic number of H is 1; every H atom has one proton the atomic number of C is 6; every C atom has six protons the atomic number of Cu is 29; every Cu atom has 29 protons Core Chemistry Skill Counting Protons and Neutrons Atomic Number = Protons in an Atom

44. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Number = Protons in an Atom

45. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atoms Are Neutral For neutral atoms, the net charge is zero. number of protons = number of electrons Aluminum has 13 protons and 13 electrons. The net (overall) charge is zero. 13 protons (13+) + 13 electrons (13 – ) = 0

46. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Use the periodic table to fill in the atomic number, number of protons, and number of electrons for each of the following elements: ElementAtomic Number ProtonsElectrons N Zn S

47. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Use the periodic table to fill in the atomic number, number of protons, and number of electrons for each of the following elements: ElementAtomic Number ProtonsElectrons N777 Zn30 S16

48. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Mass Number The mass number represents the number of particles in the nucleus is equal to the number of protons + the number of neutrons is always a whole number does not appear in the periodic table

49. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Composition of Some Atoms of Different Elements

50. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Tips: Protons and Neutrons Number of protons = atomic number Number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number Note: Mass numbers are given for specific isotopes only.

51. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207. A. How many protons are in the nucleus? B. How many neutrons are in the nucleus? C. How many electrons are in the atom?

52. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207. A.How many protons are in the nucleus? atomic number = 82; number protons = 82 B.How many neutrons are in the nucleus? mass number – number protons = number neutrons 207 – 82 = 125 neutrons

53. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207. C.How many electrons are in the atom? An atom is neutral, which means that the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. An atom of Pb has 82 protons and82 electrons.

54. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electromagnetic Radiation We experience electromagnetic radiation in different forms, such as light, the colors of a rainbow, or when we have an X-ray taken. Electromagnetic radiation consists of energy particles that move as waves of energy. The distance between the peaks of waves is called the wavelength. High-energy radiation has shorter wavelengths. Low-energy radiation has longer wavelengths.

55. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Spectrum When light from a heated element passes through a prism, it separates into distinct lines of color separated by dark areas called an atomic spectrum. Each element has its own unique atomic spectrum.

56. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron Energy Levels The lines in an atomic spectrum are associated with the changes in energies of the electrons. In an atom, each electron is assigned a specific energy level. Energy levels are assigned principal quantum numbers: (n) = (n = 1, n = 2, …..) increase in energy as the value of n increases and they are farther away from the nucleus The energy of an electron is quantized—it can have only specific energy values.

57. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electromagnetic Spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum shows the arrangement of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, with the visible range from 700 to 400 nm.

58. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electrons and Energy Levels Electrons with the same energy are grouped in the same energy level.

59. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Changes in Electron Energy Level Electrons move to a higher energy level when they absorb energy. When electrons fall back to a lower energy level, light is emitted. The energy emitted or absorbed is equal to the differences between the two energy levels.

60. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron Arrangements in Period 1 Period 1 Energy Level1 st 1 H1 2 He2 Core Chemistry Skill Writing Electron Arrangements

61. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron Arrangements in Period 2 Period 2 Energy Level1 st 2 nd 3 Li21 4 Be22 5 B23 6 C24 7 N25 8 O26 9 F27 10 Ne28

62. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron Arrangements in Period 3 Period 3 Energy Level1 st 2 nd 3 rd 11 Na 2 8 1 12 Mg 2 8 2 13 Al 2 8 3 14 Si 2 8 4 15 P 2 8 5 16 S 2 8 6 17 Cl 2 8 7 18 Ar 2 8 8

63. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron Arrangements in Period 4 Period 4 Energy Level 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 19 K 2 8 8 1 20 Ca 2 8 8 2

64. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron Arrangements Beyond 20 Energy Level 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th Number of Electrons 28 18 32 32 18 8 Electron arrangements are written as follows: O = 2,6 P = 2,8,5 Ca= 2,8,8,2

65. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Write the electron arrangements for the following elements: C Si O N

66. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Write the electron arrangements for the following elements: Catomic number = 6= 2,4 Siatomic number = 14= 2,8,4 O atomic number = 8= 2,6 Natomic number = 7= 2,5

67. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 4.7 Trends in Periodic Properties Electron arrangements are an important factor in the properties of elements, such as atomic size, ionization energy, and metallic character. Learning Goal Use the electron arrangement of elements to explain the trends in periodic properties.

68. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Group Number and Valence Electrons For representative elements in Groups 1A (1)–8A (18), chemical properties are due to the number of valence electrons. Valence electrons are the number of electrons in the outermost energy level. The group number gives the number of valence electrons for the representative elements.

69. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Group Number and Valence Electrons Group Number Number of Valence Electrons 1A(1)1 2A(2)2 3A(13)3 4A(14)4 5A(15)5 6A(16)6 7A(17)7 8A(18)8

70. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron-Dot Symbols Electron-dot symbols are also known as Lewis structures represent the valence electrons as dots placed on the sides of a symbol For example, Al = 2,8,3 Three valence electrons are represented as dots. Core Chemistry Skill Drawing Electron-Dot Symbols

71. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron-Dot Symbol for Mg Possible electron-dot symbols for magnesium, with the electron arrangement of 2,8,2, include two valence electrons, represented as dots can be drawn in more than one way Electron-dot symbols for magnesium

72. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron-Dot Symbol for Mg Magnesium (Mg) has two valence electrons, which give it an electron-dot symbol with two dots.

73. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Electron-Dot Symbols for Selected Elements Insert table 4.11 page 121

74. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Write the electron-dot symbol for each of the following elements: Cl, C, N.

75. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Write the electron-dot symbol for each of the following elements:

76. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Size Atomic size is determined by the atom’s atomic radius, the distance between nucleus and outermost electrons increases for representative elements from top to bottom of the periodic table decreases within a period as a result of the increased number of protons in the nucleus

77. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Size For representative elements, the atomic size increases going down a group but decreases going from left to right across a period.

78. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Ionization Energy As the distance from the nucleus to the valence electrons increases, the ionization energy decreases. Ionization energy is the required energy to remove one of the outermost electrons. Na(g) + energy (ionization)  Na + (g) + e−

79. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Ionization Energy Ionization energy decreases down a group and increases across a period from left to right.

80. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Metallic Character An element with metallic character is one that loses electrons easily. Metallic character is more prevalent in metals on the left side of the periodic table is less for nonmetals on the right side of the periodic table, which do not lose electrons easily

81. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Metallic Character Metallic character of the representative elements increases going down a group and decreases going from left to right across a period.

82. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Summary of Trends in the Periodic Table

83. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Study Check Given the following elements, answer the questions: CNCl Which is the largest atom? Which has the highest ionization energy? Which belongs to Group 5A?

84. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Solution Given the following elements, answer the questions: CN Cl Which is the largest atom?C Which has the highest ionization energy?Cl Which belongs to Group 5A?N

85. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept Map