1. OUTLINE Language Universals -Definition
-Why do language universals exist
-Importance of language universals
Two Major Approaches Taken to the Linguistic Universals
-Universal Grammar
-Typological Universals
-Typological Universals vs. Universal Grammar
Language Typology
-Language Typology and Typological Universals
Classification of Universals
-Implicational vs. Non-implicational
-Absolute Universals vs. Tendencies
Markedness
The Accessibility Hierarchy
Types of Typological Universals
Online Resources
Critique
Typological Universals & SLA
Studies focusing on markedness
-Markedness differential hypothesis (Eckman, 1977)
-Accessibility Hierarchy (Keenan & Comrie, 1977)
Universal generalizations and Interlanguage Grammar
Universals as Constraints on Interlanguage Grammar
Universals as Strategies for Intervention in Interlanguage Grammar
Functional Typology (Aspect Hypothesis)
Falsifiability
OUTLINE
OUTLINE

2. Okay lets start with some kind of mental gymnastic with philosophy
Okay lets start with some kind of mental gymnastic with philosophy. Do you know who is this man? Who is plato?
Plato made a distinction between particular and universal. According to him particular is something specific while universal is quality that can be had by more than one specific thing at a time
He found out that many particular things can belong to one and the same species or have one and the same nature, kind, type, essence. If they belong to one and same thing they have an universal quality.
For example, there are many particular trees such as oak, palm, apple, orange etc but in the end they all are trees.

3. Definition of Language Universals
statements of what is possible and impossible in languages (Finegan, 2011).
What is common to all languages (Mc Laughlin, 1989)
LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS
So, what comes to your mind when we say language universals?
Language universals are statements of what is possible and impossible in languages.
the features that are common to all human languages in the world

4. Why do language universals exist?
Original Language Hypothesis
all of the languages in the world derive historically from the same language
Universals and Perception
languages are symptoms of how all humans perceive the world and conduct verbal interactions
Acquisition and Processing Explanations
psychological explanations that have no physical basis.
Social Explanations
basis on cognition and others reflect the fact that language is a social tool.
Acquisition and Processing Explanations: such as word order are necessary because it makes it easier for the child to acquire language. 
Social Explanations: For example there are 1st and 2nd person pronouns as default, this is because language is used by two people during face-to-face cognition.
Finegan, 2011

5. Importance of Language Universals
Universals state what is possible in human language and what is not.
They help us to understand brain and principles that govern interpersonal communication in all cultures.
They help us to understand what in the human brain and social organization of everyday life enables people to communicate through language.
language universals are of an important value in the study of language
Finegan, 2011

6. Two Major Approaches Taken to the Linguistic Universals
rationalism
empiricism
There have been a number of different approaches taken to the study of linguistic universals in second language research
Scholars examine how a language behaves and then posit generalizations that can later be checked against other languages
Surveying worlds’ languages and then arriving at a conclusion about what might constitute a universal
Noam Chomsky
Joseph H. Greenberg

7. LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY VS. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR
Theory driven
Data driven
Abstract principles that apply to all languages
Less abstract
Generally derived by deduction
Based on readily observable data
In-depth analysis of the properties of a language
Examination of the surface features of a wide range of languages
(Van Patten & Benati, 2010; McLaughlin, 1989)

8. Greenberg and his followers
LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY
analyzing data from a representative sample of world’s languages in order to extract universal patternings
Greenberg and his followers
To what extent different languages are structured according to universal principles
Greenberg and his followers begins by
There is a general agreement among linguists that language universals exist but the question is…
Typological universals tries to answer this question but there are limitations of this approach which i will mention at the end of my presentation
(McLaughlin, 1989, p. 83)

9. LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY
The study of patterns exhibited in languages worldwide (Gass & Selinker, 2008)
A field of study in which patterns that exist among the languages of the world are researched and the possible variation found in human languages described (McLaughlin, 1989)
The specification of language universals based on discerned patterns
The limits define the universals
Typological universals stems from the study of the patterns exhibited in languages worldwide
The specification of language universals is based on discerned patterns in this variation, the limits of variation defining the universals

10. LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS AND LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY
Complementary to each other
What is common to all languages
Variation that exists between languages
Thus, the study of language universals and the study of language typology are complementary to reach other.
The study of universals focuses on what is common to all languages and the study of typology focuses on the variation that exist between languages

11. LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY
«In developing a typology, researchers examine actual representations of a particular parameter to determine whether the various logical possibilities are found across languages.» (McLaughlin, 1989, p. 83)
The complementarity between the study of language universals and the study of language typology can be illustrated by an example.

12. VSO without prepositions Non-VSO with prepositions
Universal: languages with VSO basic word order have prepositions (Greenberg, 1974)
VSO with prepositions
VSO without prepositions
Non-VSO with prepositions
Non-VSO without prepositions
Let’s take a look at Greenberg’s universal
There are four logical possibilities
In the figure there are languages that fall into first, third and fourth categories. But there are no languages in the second category. Thus, the typological endevour – aimed at assigning languages to different types – leads to the establishment of a universal.

13. CLASSIFICATION OF UNIVERSALS
Typological Universals
Based on the presence of property
Non-implicational universals
Implicational universals
Based on exceptions
Absolute universals
Tendencies
(McLaughlin, 1989; Comrie, 1981 as cited in McLaughlin, 1989)
There have been a number of classification purposed for universals but the most common ones are based on the presence of the property and based on exceptions

14. Non-implicational vs. Implicational Universals
Present or absent in natural languages without reference to any other properties of the given langauge
Languages have vowels (Mc Laughlin, 1989, p. 84)
No reference is made to any other properties that must or must not be present

15. Non-implicational vs. Implicational Universals
Relate the presence of one property to the presence of some other property
In languages with prepositions, the genitive almost always follows the governing noun, while in languages with postpositions it almost always precedes nouns (Greenberg, 1963, p. 78)

16. Absolute Universals vs. Tendencies
without exceptions
Tendencies
with exceptions
Nonimplicational and implicational universals may be absolute universals or tendencies

17. Absolute Universals vs. Tendencies
Tendency
Non-implicational/
Implicational
All languages have vowels.
Absolute
Non-implicational
All languages have nasal consonants.
(some Salishan languages)
If a language has a VSO as its basic word order, it has prepositions.
If a language has SOV basic word order, it will have postpositions.
(Persian is SOV with prepositions)
McLaughlin, 1989

18. Markedness
An observation of the implicational relationship between categories (Mc Laughlin, 1989)
A linguistic concept related to how common or typical a feature is (Van Patten & Benati, 2010)
An important concept related to the implicational relationship is markedness. Markedness is

19. A B HOWEVER Markedness A is more marked than B
Implicational Relationships
A B
HOWEVER
However, it is not possible to define typological markedness on the basis of implicational relationships, because there are no two categories, A and B, that co-exist in the language and have an implicational relationship. In such cases, markedness is based on frequency (McLaughlin, 1989).
Whenever the existence of a category A in a language implies the existence of category B, A is considered more marked that B.
However, it is not possible to define typological markedness on the basis of implicational relationships, because there are no two categories, A and B, that co-exist in the language and have an implicational relationship. In such cases, markedness is based on frequency (McLaughlin, 1989).

20. Markedness
Something that is more common or ubiquitous is considered less marked or unmarked, while something less common or less natural is considered marked or more marked.
Markedness can be used to make crosslinguistic comparisons (what happens around the world with languages) or what happens within a single language
Something unmarked or less marked may be considered as the default form of the feature (Van Patten & Benati, 2010).

21. Tom is the man who studies SLA.
Markedness
Tom is the man who studies SLA.
Relative clause
In the world’s languages, there are relative clauses such as Tom is the man who studies SLA, with who studies SLA as the relative clause. There are various types of relative clauses depending on the relationship of the relative marker to the verb

22. Subject relative clause: Tom is the man who studied SLA
Markedness
Subject relative clause: Tom is the man who studied SLA
Object relative clause: SLA is the subject that Tom studied
Indirect object relative clause: Tom is the guy who I gave the SLA book to
Object of preposition clause: Tom is the guy who I studied SLA with
Genitive clause: Tom is the guy whose SLA book I borrowed
Object of comparison clause: Tom is the guy who I am taller than
More
marked
According to survey of world languages, subject relative clauses are the most common and are the least marked. Object of comparisons are the least common and are the most marked

23. Markedness
Markedness has been shown to be relevant to both L1 and L2 acquisition.

24. The Accessibility Hierarchy
Keenan and Comrie (1977)
An example of chain of implicational universals:
if a language can relativize on position n, then necessarily it can also relativize on position n-1
Recent work on language universals has uncovered a number of areas where one property can be described as more marked than some other property. One that is particularly relevant to research on second language learning is the Accessibility Hierarchy for relativization proposed by Keenan and Comrie
They argued on cross-linguistic grounds that the degree of difficulty of relativizing on a particular noun phrase proceeds from top to bottom along the hierarchy in table
Thus subjects are predicted to be easier to relativize than direct objects and so on down the hierarchy.
McLaughlin, 1989

25. The Accessibility Hierarchy
If a language can relativize on a given preposition on the Accessibility Hierarchy, then it must be able to relativize on all positions higher on the hierarchy, because a position lower on the hierarchy cannot be more accessible then one higher.
For each position on the Accessibility Hierarchy, there is some possible human language that can relativize on that position but on no lower position, because each position on the hierarchy is thought to define a potential cut-off point.
There are two sub-parts to the hypothesis
McLaughlin, 1989

26. The Accessibility Hierarchy
The Accessibility Hierarchy attempts to characterize the various types of relative clause construction among different languages.
Researchers have argued that the construction of a noun phrase for relativization depends on its grammatical role.
Van Patten & Benati, 2010

27. The Accessibility Hierarchy
The noun phrase accessibility hierarchy indicates that the easiest relative clause construction is when the relative pronoun is the subject of relative clause. A specific hierarchy is proposed:
These sentences show that the focus of attention in the noun phrase accessibility hierarchy is on the grammatical role of the relative pronoun no matter the role taken by thr head noun in the main clause
Van Patten & Benati, 2010

28. TYPES OF TYPOLOGICAL UNIVERSALS
Word order typology
Transivity typology
Syntactic typology
Word classes
Voice typology
Morphological typology
Case-marking typology
Grammatical relations typology
Semantic typology
Person marking
Typology of tense, aspect and modality systems
Typology of phonological systems
Song, 2013

29. Word order typology
In languages with prepositions, the genitive almost always follows the governing noun, while in languages with postpositions it almost always precedes noun (Greenberg, 1963)
In languages with prepositions such as french, russian, italian noun representing what is being possessed preceding the possessor
In languages with postpositions such as turkish, prepositions follow the noun

30. The leg of the table My friend’s dog Word order typology
Possessed precedes possessor
Preposition follow the noun
IMPLICATIONAL TENDENCY
English is somewhat exceptional in that it allows not only the predicted order but also the unpredicted Word order

31. Implicational absolute universal
Word order typology
Languages with dominant verb-subject-object (VSO) order are always prepositional (Greenberg, 1963)
Implicational absolute universal

32. World Atlas of Language Structures http://wals.info/
Online Sources
World Atlas of Language Structures
The Language Index

33. Wide range of languages
CRITIQUE
Wide range of languages
Representative sample of human languages -> how is one to know that the sample is sufficiently large and varied to include examples of all the kinds of structures found in human languages?

34. Even if the sample could be shown to be representative, there remains the problem of demonstrating the empirical validity of putative linguistic universals
The Notion of tendency

35. It is undeniable that typology has been able to produce theoretical tools in the form of implicational generalizations, which provide hypotheses for the description of learner languages (Ramat, 2009)