1. WELCOME TO A&P I Vladimir Jurukovski PhD Professor Suffolk County Community College William Lindsay Life Sciences Building 306 (631) 451-4362 jurukov@sunysuffolk.edu http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/jurukov

2. The bookstore has a two volume edition specially for SCCC that can be purchased separately. Vol.1 for BIO-130 includes a Connect access code for one semester. Vol. 2 for BIO-132 includes a Connect access code for one semester. Laboratory manual can only be purchased in the bookstore Full hardcover edition of the A&P textbook.

3.  Anatomy and physiology (A&P) is about human structure and function—the biology of the human body  We want to know how our body works!  A&P is a foundation for advanced study in health care, exercise physiology, pathophysiology, and other health- care-related fields  Considers the historical development and a central concept of physiology—homeostasis 1-3

4.  Expected Learning Outcomes  Define anatomy and physiology and relate them to each other.  Describe several ways of studying human anatomy.  Define a few sub-disciplines of human physiology. 1-4

5.  Examining structure of the human body  Inspection  Palpation  Auscultation  Percussion  Cadaver dissection  Cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships  Comparative anatomy  Study of more than one species in order to examine structural similarities and differences, and analyze evolutionary trends 1-5

6. Cadaver Dissection

7.  Exploratory surgery  Open body and take a look inside  Medical imaging  Viewing the inside of the body without surgery  Radiology—branch of medicine concerned with imaging  Gross anatomy  Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye  Cytology  Study of structure and function of cells  Histology (microscopic anatomy)  Examination of cells with microscope  Ultrastructure  View molecular detail under electron microscope  Histopathology  Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease 1-7

8. Exploratory Surgery Medical Imaging Cytology Gross Anatomy Histology

9.  Subdisciplines  Neurophysiology (physiology of nervous system)  Endocrinology (physiology of hormones)  Pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease)  Comparative physiology  Limitations on human experimentation  Study of different species to learn about bodily function  Animal surgery  Animal drug tests  Basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures 1-9

10.  Modern biomedical science  Technological enhancements  Advances in medical imaging have enhanced our diagnostic ability and life-support strategies  Genetic Revolution  Human genome is finished  Gene therapy is being used to treat disease  Early pioneers were important  Established scientific way of thinking  Replaced superstition with natural laws 1-10

11.  Expected Learning Outcomes  List the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest.  Discuss the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans. 1-11

12.  Organism – a single, complete individual  Organ System – human body made of 11 organ systems  Organ – structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function  Tissue – a mass of similar cells and cell products that form discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function  Cells – the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life  Cytology – the study of cells and organelles  Organelles – microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions  Molecules – make up organelles and other cellular components  macromolecules – proteins, carbohydrates, fats, DNA  Atoms – the smallest particles with unique chemical identities 1-12

13.  Organization  Cellular composition  Metabolism  anabolism, catabolism and excretion  Responsiveness and movement  Stimuli  Homeostasis  Development  differentiation and growth  Reproduction  Evolution  mutations 1-13

14. Horseshoe kidney Normal Variations in branches of the aorta Pelvic kidney  No two humans are exactly alike  70% most common structure  30% anatomically variant  Variable number of organs  Missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries  Variation in organ locations 1-14

15.  Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity  Typical physiological values  reference man  22 years old, 154 lbs, 68.5 in, light physical activity  consumes 2800 kcal/day  reference woman  22 years old, 128 lbs, 64.5 in and 2000 kcal/day 1-15

16.  Homeostasis – the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions  state of the body fluctuates (dynamic equilibrium) within limited range around a set point  Negative feedback keeps variable close to the set point  Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death 1-16

17.  Body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it—dynamic equilibrium  Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them (temperature, for example), they are called feedback loops 1-17 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 2 6 5 Room temperature fallsto66°F(19°C) Thermost atactivates furnace Thermostat shuts off furnace Room cools down Room temperature rises to 70°F (21°C) 3 4 Heat output C10°15°20°25° 80°F50°60°70° C10°15°20°25° 80°F50°60°70°

18.  Example: Room temperature does not stay at set point of 68°F— it only averages 68°F 1-18 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 60 65 70 75 Room temperature ( o F) Time Furnace turned on at 66 o F Set point 68 o F Furnace turned off at 70 o F

19.  Example: Brain senses change in blood temperature  If too warm, vessels dilate (vasodilation) in the skin and sweating begins (heat-losing mechanism)  If too cold, vessels in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction) and shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism) 1-19 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Vasoconstriction Vasodilation Set point Time Shivering 37.5 o C (99.5 o F) 37.0 o C (98.6 o F) 36.5 o C (97.7 o F) Core body temperature Sweating

20.  Sitting up in bed causes a drop in blood pressure in the head and upper torso region (local imbalance in homeostasis); detected by baroreceptors  Baroreceptors (sensory nerve endings) in the arteries near the heart alert the cardiac center in the brainstem. They transmit to the cardiac center  Cardiac center sends nerve signals that increase the heart rate and return the blood pressure to normal; regulates heart rate  Failure of this to feedback loop may produce dizziness in the elderly 1-20 Baroreceptors send signals to cardiac center of brainstem Baroreceptors above heart respond to drop in blood pressure Cardiac center accelerates heartbeat Blood pressure rises to normal; homeostasis is restored Blood drains from upper body, creating homeostatic imbalance Person rises from bed Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

21.  Receptor—senses change in the body (e.g., stretch receptors that monitor blood pressure)  Integrating (control) center—control center that processes the sensory information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (e.g., cardiac center of the brain)  Effector—carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (e.g., cell or organ) 1-21

22.  Self-amplifying cycle  Leads to greater change in the same direction  Feedback loop is repeated—change produces more change  Normal way of producing rapid changes  Occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, fever, and generation of nerve signals 1-22

23.  During birth, the head of the fetus pushes against the cervix and stimulates its nerve endings  Hormone oxytocin is secreted from the pituitary gland  Oxytocin travels through the bloodstream to the uterus stimulating it to contract  This action pushes the fetus downward toward cervix, thus stimulating the cervix more, causing the positive feedback loop to be repeated 1-23 3 4 1 Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus toward cervix Nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain Brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin Head of fetus pushes against cervix 2

24.  Fever > 104°F  Metabolic rate increases  Body produces heat even faster  Body temperature continues to rise  Further increasing metabolic rate  Cycle continues to reinforce itself  Becomes fatal at 113°F 1-24

25.  Cell Theory  All structure and function result from the activity of cells  Homeostasis  The purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions within the body  Evolution  The human body is a product of evolution  Hierarchy of Structure  Human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity  Unity of Form and Function  Form and function complement each other; physiology cannot be divorced from anatomy 1-25

26.  Radiography (X-rays)  William Roentgen’s discovery in 1885  Penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body  Dense tissue appears white  Over half of all medical imaging  Until 1960s, it was the only method widely available 1-26 © U.H.B. Trust/Tony Stone Images/Getty Imagese (a) X-ray (radiograph) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

27.  Radiopaque substances  Injected or swallowed  Fills hollow structures  Blood vessels  Intestinal tract 1-27 (b Cerebral angiogram Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Custom Medical Stock Photos, Inc.

28.  Computed tomography (CT scan)  Formerly called a CAT scan  Low-intensity X-rays and computer analysis  Slice-type image  Increased sharpness of image 1-28 (c) Computed tomographic (CT) scan Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. © CNR/Phototake

29.  Positron emission tomography (PET) scan  Assesses metabolic state of tissue  Distinguished tissues most active at a given moment  Mechanics—inject radioactively labeled glucose  Positrons and electrons collide  Gamma rays given off  Detected by sensor  Analyzed by computer  Image color shows tissues using the most glucose at that moment  Damaged tissues appear dark 1-29 (d) Positron emission tomographic (PET) scan Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Tony Stone Images/Getty Images

30.  Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)  Slice-type image  Superior quality to CT scan  Best for soft tissue  Mechanics  Alignment and realignment of hydrogen atoms with magnetic field and radio waves  Varying levels of energy given off used by computer to produce an image 1-30 Figure 1.13e (e) Magnetic resonance image (MRI) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. © Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY

31.  Sonography  Second oldest and second most widely used  Mechanics  High-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs  Avoids harmful X-rays  Obstetrics  Image not very sharp 1-31