2. Violence: An aggressive act in which the perpetrator abuses individuals indirectly or directly. Aggression is a sequence of behavior intended to dominate or harm another individual. The perpetrator could be an individual, group, institution, or nation. Forms of violence: verbal, physical, psychological Examples of violence: Murder, bullying, war, genocide, domestic violence, suicide Definition of Violence

3. Evolutionary Explanation: Uses violence in primates to show how animals fight to win a mate, protect off-spring, etc. Violent gene: Dutch Family and violent rat study. Serotonin: Low levels of serotonin indicate higher irritability and aggressive behavior. Remember Monkey Island! Frontal-lobe Abnormalities: Lesions in animals in this area led to more aggressive and violent behavior. Biological origins of violence

4. In a study of murderers who pled not guilty by reason of insanity, researchers found lower activity in the prefrontal cortex, increased right hemisphere activity, and abnormalities (asymmetry) in the amygdala and hippocampus. These results indicate a problem forming and using emotionally laden perceptions and memories. This seems to indicate a mere predisposition vs. cause for violence (Raine, 1997). Biological Origins (cont.)

5. Testosterone Hormone: Implicated in sexual arousal and aggression. In most species males tend to be more aggressive than females. This is usually attributed to higher levels of testosterone in males. Level of aggression correlates positively with the amount of testosterone in the blood. Sapolsky (1998) argues that the mere presence of testosterone is enough to allow for aggressive behavior. Biological Origins (cont.)

6. Schema Theory: We form cognitive schemas about what to expect from other people and the emotions we link to them. Bowlby calls these “inner working models”. A person who has been subjected to abuse, social rejection, or violence by his or her peers seems to be at risk for developing anti- social behavior which is linked to social information processing. Researchers believe there is a link between negative views of the self and aggressive behavior. There is an even stronger link between aggression and an individual’s negative view of others. This indicates that a negative attributional style could be involved in aggression and violent behavior. Cognitive Origins of Violence

7. Methods: Participants filled out a questionnaire to measure self-esteem. Extremely high levels of self- esteem were labeled “narcissistic”. They were then asked to write an essay expressing their ideas on abortion. Each received their essays back with either good or bad comments from another imaginary participant. Participants then took a reaction-time test. Whoever responded more slowly got a blast of noise with the volume and duration set by his/her opponent. Narcissists & Aggression Study (Bushman, 1998)

8. The level of aggression (degree of blasting noise) was highest among narcissists who had received negative comments on their essays. Results

9. LO #11: Evaluate sociocultural explanations of the origins of violence

10. Power Differences *Subculture of Violence Theory Cultural Norms *Social Learning Theory Deindividualization Mitchell Heisman Sociocultural Explanations of Violence

11. A Russian psychologist, Vygotsky, in the 1930s suggests that use of violence is the result of power differences between different social groups. Traditionally, differences between groups are determined by gender, social class and ethnicity. The dominant group has always displayed dominance over the less powerful group. Power Differences

12. Some subcultures value violent behavior. Members commit to a subculture’s norms and values. Individual violent values lead to violent behavior because subcultural values act as a social control among group members. Violence is used as a way of defending honor and maintaining status (within the group and in relation to other groups). Subculture of Violence Theory (Wolfgang & Ferracuti, 1967)

13. Methods: A large-scale survey in Iceland of 15 & 16 year old boys and girls in 49 public schools. Participants were asked how often they engaged in various threatening and physically violent acts (eg. fighting, kicking, punching). Subculture of Violence Study (Berburg & Thorlindsson, 2005)

14. - The most violent students said they conformed to group conduct norms in terms of aggressive behavior. -Boys were more likely to act aggressively than girls. -Group pressure to respond to personal attacks with aggression or violence could act as a form of social control. FINDINGS

15. Subculture of Violence Theory was supported because researchers concluded that group adherence to values/norms encourages aggressive behavior through: -1. internalization of values encouraging violence. -2. social control processes (eg. conformity) ensure adherence to conduct norms. FINDINGS (cont.)

16. Strength: It can explain how violence may be used to establish and maintain power within a social group (for ex. bullying) Weakness: Does not explain specific sociocultural factors (ex. poverty, class oppression) that lead to high rates of violence. Evaluation of Theory

17. Some subcultures have a ”culture of honor”. Culture of honor: A cultural norm where people need to maintain their reputation by not accepting improper conduct by others, such as insults. These cultures encourage retribution and toughness. Cohen and Nisbett (1995): College students from the southern and northern part of the United States were insulted by a confederate. Students who had grown up in the southern United States were more upset (had a higher rise in cortisol levels) and were more likely to engage in aggressive and dominant behavior. These researchers argue that this subculture survived from the Irish & Scottish herding economies that settled the South between the 17 th & 19 th centuries. Additional Support for the Theory

18. Child maltreatment  Female children are valued less in society than males (e.g. Peru: where female children are considered to have less social and economic potential).  Research suggests that physical child discipline occurs in 41% of reported households in Peru (WHO, 2000). Out of the 41%, 90% of all discipline is directed towards female children. Cultural Norms that Support Violence

19. Intimate partner violence  Cultural Norm: A man has a right to assert power over a woman and is socially superior (e.g. India, Nigeria, Ghana).  According to a 2002 International Center for Research on Women study, 45 percent of reported Indian women are physically or verbally challenged by their husbands. India also had the highest rate of violence during pregnancy. Cultural Norms that Support Violence

20. Suicide  Cultural Norm: Individuals in different social groups within society are not tolerated – e.g. homosexuals (Japan )  According to a Reynan (2002), Japan has the highest suicide rate in the world among same-sex couples. Cultural Norms that Support Violence

21. Sexual abuse  Sex is a man’s right in a relationship (e.g. Pakistan)  Research: The Human Right Commission of Pakistan estimates that a rape occurs in Pakistan every two hours and a gang rape every eight hours. Cultural Norms that Support Violence

22. The federal government's Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS-4) found that:  Abuse is three times more common in poor families. This was more of a predictor of abuse than race. Violent results of “poverty culture”

23. Although, learning takes place in a variety of settings, aggressive behavior that is reinforced by members of one's family is perhaps the most important source of behavior modeling given that the home is where the initial process of learning begins (Family Abuse and Crime - Theoretical Models Of Family Violence, 2011). Social Learning Theory & Violence

24.  As we have previously learned, children learn antisocial behavior through observational learning of indirect and direct models (Bandura).  The social learning theory holds that people are not born as violent individuals but rather they learn violent behavior by watching and imitating the behavior of others. Social Learning Theory

25. Methods: A purposive sample of 30 abusive adolescent males from a large city in Canada was used. All admitted using violence against their girlfriends. The mean age was 15.6 years, majority white, many were gang members, all were exposed to violence in the family. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect qualitative data. Girlfriend Abuse Study (Totten, 2003)

26. -All had fathers with rigid authoritarian beliefs (rigid gender roles). -All had fathers who used violence to control family members of defend their honor. -All saw family violence as justified and even necessary. -All were abusive and 21 used physical & sexual violence for the same reasons as their fathers (they said they had the right to use violence if their girlfriends didn’t behave). FINDINGS

27. Strength: Can be used to provide insight into interventions. Limitation: The small, purposive sample makes it hard to generalize. Evaluation of Study

28. 1.SLT cannot explain how structural factors such as poverty contribute to establishing the social norms of male superiority. 2.SLT does not take into account individual factors like intelligence & personality. 3.Some people may be more prone to violence due to individual situations like brain damage from childhood abuse. Limitations of SLT in violence

29. 1.Social norms of violence can be transmitted from parents to children as predicted by SLT. 2.SLT can also explain that adolescents use violence in marginalized social peer groups because it pays off in the form of status. Strengths of SLT in violence

30. Eron (1986): Found a positive correlation between number of hours of violence watched on television at the age of 8 and the level of aggression they demonstrated as teenagers, as well as the number of criminal acts as adults Charlton et al. (1999): The introduction of television in St Helena in 1995 did not increase the observed aggression in primary school children. SLT and Television Violence

31. Deindividualization occurs when people are in large groups or crowds. This state is characterized by diminished awareness of self and individuality. It provides anonymity which allows the individual to avoid responsibility for his/her actions, thus disregarding the usual social controls and becoming more impulsive, irrational, and sometimes violent. Deindividualization

32. METHODS Female college students were asked to deliver electric shocks to other students to “aid learning”. Half the participants wore bulky lab coats and hoods that hid their faces. They were spoken to in groups of 4 and never referred to by name. The other half wore normal clothes and were given large name tags to wear. All participants were told that one learner was “honest, sincere, and warm” and the other was “conceited and critical”. Deindivualization Study (Zimbardo, 1969)

33. Hooded participants delivered twice as many shocks regardless of the participant description. This indicates that those whose identities were obscured were more likely to deliver a harsher punishment due to deindividualization. FINDINGS

34. Any one sociocultural explanation for violence seems too simplistic. Biological, cognitive and individual factors make for complex reasons why people are violent. Conclusion