1. Blood

2. Circulatory System The circulatory system consists of: Heart Blood Vessels Blood Adults have 4-6 liters of blood. The study of blood is hematology

3. Points to ponder What type of tissue is blood and what are its components? What is found in plasma? Name the three formed elements in blood and their functions. How does the structure of red blood cells relate to their function? Describe the structure and function of each white blood cell. What are disorders of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets?

4. Points to ponder What do you need to know before donating blood? What are antigens and antibodies? How are ABO blood types determined? What blood types are compatible for blood transfusions? What is the Rh factor and how is this important to pregnancy? How does the cardiovascular system interact with other systems to maintain homeostasis?

5. What are the Functions of Blood? Transportation: Oxygen, nutrients, wastes, carbon dioxide, and hormones Defense: Against invasion by pathogens Regulatory functions: Body temperature, water-salt balance, and body pH

6. What is the composition of blood? Remember: blood is a fluid connective tissue. Formed elements are produced in red bone marrow. Red blood cells/erythrocytes (RBCs) White blood cells/leukocytes (WBCs) Platelets/thrombocytes Plasma 91% water and 9% salts and organic molecules Plasma proteins are the most abundant organic molecules.

7. Composition of blood Venipuncture by phlebotomist

8. Fig. 6.2

9. Three major types of plasma proteins Albumins – most abundant and important for plasma’s osmotic pressure as well as transport Globulins – also important in transport Fibrinogen – important for the formation of blood clots

10. Where do the formed elements come from and what are they? stem cells megakaryoblastsmyeloblastsmonoblastslymphoblastserythroblasts stem cells for the white blood cells Lymphocyte active in specific immunity Monocyte becomes large phagocyte Neutrophil (contains granules) phagocytizes pathogens Eosinophil (contains granules) active in allergies and worm infections Basophil (contains granules) releases histamine Platelets (thrombocytes) aid blood clotting Red Blood Cell (erythrocyte) transports O 2 and helps transport CO 2 (top): © Doug Menuez/Getty RF; Figure 6.1 How cells in the blood are formed.

12. Formed Elements The formed elements are produced in red bone marrow which is found in almost every bone of a child, but in only certain bones of adults. Flat bones of sternum, hips Ends of long bones Red bone marrow contains pluripotent stem cells, which divide and give rise to all of the various types of blood cells.

13. Red Blood Cells (RBC’s) RBC’s are the most abundant formed elements. There are 4 to 6 million red blood cells per mm 3 of whole blood. RBC’s have 2 main functions. To pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues of the body. To pick up carbon dioxide from the tissues and unload it in the lungs.

14. Erythrocytes Red blood cells (RBC) Discoid shape Biconcave disks Shape increases surface area No nucleus Lack many organelles Contain hemoglobin

15. Red blood cells Hemoglobin is a pigment that makes RBC’s red. Consists of 4 polypeptides Each RBC contains about 280 million hemoglobin molecules that bind 8 molecules of O 2 each.

16. The structure of red blood cells is important to their function Figure 6.3 Red blood cells and the structure of hemoglobin. 4,175x400xa. Red blood cellsb. Hemoglobin molecule helical shape of the polypeptide molecule c. Blood capillary capillary ironheme group 6.3a: © Andrew Syred/Science Source; 6.3c: © Ed Reschke/Getty Images

17. How Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen. Each hemoglobin molecule has four polypeptides that comprise the protein globin and an iron- containing, oxygen-carrying heme portion. Oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin are the names for the shapes that hemoglobin can take with or without bound hemoglobin.

18. How is carbon dioxide transported? 68% as a bicarbonate ion in the plasma (this conversion takes place in RBCs) 25% bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells 7% as carbon dioxide in the plasma

19. How Red Blood Cells Help Transport Carbon Dioxide Hemoglobin directly transports about 25% of carbon dioxide which binds to the terminal amino groups of the globin molecules. The remaining carbon dioxide is transported as the bicarbonate ion in the plasma. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase, contained in red blood cells, catalyzes the reaction of carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid. When blood containing bicarbonate ions reaches the lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs and is exhaled.

20. RBC life cycle Last about 120 days As a RBC ages, its membrane becomes fragile. Eventually it ruptures as it tries to flex through narrow capillaries. RBC’s are destroyed in the liver and the spleen The spleen= the erythrocyte graveyard RBC’s have a hard time passing through its small channels. Here the old cells become trapped, broken up, and destroyed.

21. RBC life cycle

22. Hemoglobin is released when blood cells are broken down. Iron is recovered and recycled to the bone marrow. Pigments from hemoglobin are excreted as bile pigments. Erythropoietin (EPO) is secreted by kidney cells and moves to red marrow when oxygen levels are low. Erythropoietin is a hormone that stimulates bone marrow stem cells to make more red blood cells.

24. Disorders of RBC’s Anemia A condition resulting from too few RBC’s or hemoglobin that causes a run-down feeling Sickle-Cell Disease Sickle-cell disease is a hereditary condition in which the hemoglobin molecule is abnormal and the individual has sickle-shaped red blood cells that tend to rupture as they pass through the narrow capillaries.

25. Disorders of RBC’s Hemolytic disease of the newborn A condition with incompatible blood types that leads to rupturing of blood cells in a baby before and continuing after birth

26. White Blood Cells

27. White blood cells Derived from red bone marrow Large blood cells that have a nucleus Production regulated by colony-stimulating factor (CSF) Can be found in the tissues as well as the blood Fight infection and are an important part of the immune system Some live for only days while others live months or years

28. White Blood Cells White blood cells (leukocytes) are large, nucleated, and function in immunity. Some live days and others live months or years. Memory cells last for decades! WBC’s are not as numerous as RBC’s Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) are proteins that regulate the production of white blood cells.

29. White Blood Cells Functions of WBC’s Found in the blood as well as tissues Can squeeze through pores in the capillary wall to go and fight infections (diapedesis) Invade tissues when needed Fight infection Important part of the immune system Numbers can double within hours if needed

30. WBC types Granulocytes Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Agranulocytes Lymphocytes Monocytes

31. How are white blood cells categorized? Granular leukocytes – contain noticeable granules, lobed nuclei Neutrophil Eosinophil Basophil Agranular leukocytes – no granules, nonlobed nuclei Lymphocyte Monocyte

32. Neutrophils About 50-70% of all WBCs Granules do not stain Have a multilobed nucleus Upon infection, move out of circulation into tissues to engulf pathogens by phagocytosis

33. 1. List two white blood cells and give the function of each. 2. Give three functions of blood. 3. In what three forms is carbon dioxide transported in the blood? 4. Name the hormone secreted by the kidney when oxygen levels are too low. This hormone works on the red marrow in your long bones and causes the stem cells to make more RBC’s. 5. What is the one thing we covered this week that causes you the most problems?

34. Neutrophils Most numerous WBC Contains a multi-lobed nucleus Fight off bacterial infections Upon infection they move out of circulation into tissues to engulf pathogens

35. Eosinophils Small percentage of WBCs Have a bilobed nucleus Many large granules function in parasitic infections and play a role in allergies

36. Eosinophils Many large granules function in parasitic infections and play a role in allergies Granules stain with red – acidic stain

37. Basophil Small percentage of WBCs Have a U-shaped or lobed nucleus Release histamine related to allergic reactions

38. Basophils Smallest percentage of WBC’s Stain purple – basic stain Release histamine related to allergic reactions Histamine dilates blood vessels and constricts air tubes leading to lungs

39. Lymphocyte About 25-35% of all WBCs 2 nd most numerous WBC Large nucleus that takes up most of the cytoplasm Important in fighting off viral infections

40. Lymphocyte Develops into B and T cells that are important in the immune system B lymphocytes mature into plasma cells that make antibodies T lymphocytes control immune response

41. Monocyte Relatively uncommon WBCs Largest WBC, with horseshoe-shaped nucleus Take residence in tissues and develop into macrophages Macrophages use phagocytosis to engulf pathogens

42. Monocyte Largest of the WBC’s Count increases in inflammation and viral infections Leave the bloodstream and transform into macrophages Play a role in immune response

43. White Blood Cells The immune system defends the body against pathogens, cancer cells, and foreign proteins. An antigen is a cell or other foreign substance that provokes an immune response. For example: Foreign proteins Viruses Bacteria Abnormal or foreign cells

44. How do blood cells leave circulation? white blood cell connective tissue blood capillary Figure 6.6 Movement of white blood cells into the tissue. Diapedesis

45. Disorders of WBC’s Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID) An inherited disease in which stem cells of WBC’s lack an enzyme that allows them to fight any infection Lymphoma A group of cancers that begin in cells of the immune system. There are two basic categories of lymphomas: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphomas, which includes a large, diverse group of cancers of immune system cells.

46. Leukemia A group of cancers in which white blood cells proliferate without control

47. Disorders of WBC’s Infectious mononucleosis- also know as the “kissing disease” occurs when the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects lymphocytes resulting in fatigue, sore throat, and swollen lymph nodes 50% monocytes with at least 10% atypical lymphocytes (large, irregular nuclei),

48. Platelets

49. Small fragments of large cell called megakaryocytes About 10 11 platelets are made per day Live for about 10 days Aide in blood clotting Blood proteins named thrombin and fibrinogen create clots by forming fibrin threads that catch RBCs.

50. Platelets and Blood Clotting Blood Clotting When tissues are damaged, platelets stick to the damaged area, partially sealing torn blood vessels. Injured tissues release prothrombin activator, which converts prothrombin to thrombin. This step requires calcium ions. Thrombin functions as an enzyme to convert fibrinogen into long threads of insoluble fibrin.

51. How do platelets clot blood? 3. Platelets and damaged tissue cells release prothrombin activator, which initiates a cascade of enzymatic reactions. 2. Platelets congregate and form a plug. 1. Blood vessel is punctured. 4. Fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells. a. Blood-clotting process fibrin threads red blood cell b. Blood clot fibrin threads thrombin prothrombin activator 4,400  prothrombin fibrinogen 6.7b: © Eye of Science/Science Source Ca 2+ Figure 6.7 The steps in the formation of a blood clot.

52. Disorders of Platelets Thrombocytopenia A disorder in which the number of platelets is too low due to not enough being made in the bone marrow or the increased breakdown outside the marrow Thromboembolism A spontaneous clot is called a thrombus if it remains in the vessel; if it dislodges and travels, it is called an embolus. A thromboembolus can result in a heart attack or stroke when the clot plugs a vessel in the heart or brain

53. Disorders of Platelets Hemophilia Hemophilia is an inherited clotting disorder carried on the X chromosome which results in the deficiency of a clotting factor. Injections of this factor can treat the disease. Victim hemorrages Can die from bleeding internally

54. What do you need to know about donating blood? Donating blood is a safe and sterile procedure. You will donate about a pint of blood. You will replace the plasma in a few hours and the cells in a few weeks. A few people may feel dizzy afterwards so sit down, eat a snack, and drink some water.

55. What do you need to know about donating blood? Your blood will at least be tested for syphilis, HIV antibodies, and hepatitis; if any of them come back positive you will be notified. Your blood can help save many lives. You should not give blood if you have ever had hepatitis or malaria, or been treated for syphilis or gonorrhea within the past 12 months. are at risk for having HIV or have AIDS.

56. Blood Typing A blood transfusion is the transfer of blood from 1 individual to another For transfusions to be safe, blood must be typed so that agglutination (clumping) does not occur Blood typing involves determining the ABO blood group and Rh factor so that the transfusion can be done safely. Blood typing usually involves determining the ABO blood group and whether the individual is Rh- or Rh+

57. What terminology can help you understand ABO blood typing? Antigen – a foreign substance, often a polysaccharide or a protein, that stimulates an immune response Antibody – a protein made in response to an antigen in the body which binds specifically to that antigen Blood transfusion – the transfer of blood from one individual into another individual

58. ABO Blood Groups The most common system for typing blood is the ABO system. Blood types A, B, and AB correspond with having specific antigens on the surface of RBCs; type O is an absence of these antigens. All persons have antibodies in their plasma for the A and/or B antigen not carried on their own RBCs. If the corresponding antigen and antibody are combined, clumping, or agglutination, occurs.

59. What determines the A, B, AB, or O blood type? Presence and/or absence of 2 blood antigens, A and B Type of antibodies present Antibodies are only present for those antigens lacking on the cells because these proteins recognize and bind the protein they are named after.

60. Figure 6.8 The ABO blood type system (Type A blood). What determines the A, B, AB, or O blood type? type A antigen anti-B antibodies Type A blood. Red blood cells have type A surface antigens. Plasma has anti-B antibodies.

62. Blood typing For example: Type A blood -has A antigen on its surface -has B antibodies in the plasma What can you say about someone with type AB blood?

63. Looking at each blood type in the ABO blood system Type B blood. Red blood cells have type B surface antigens. Plasma has anti-A antibodies. type B antigen anti-A antibodies Type A blood. Red blood cells have type A surface antigens. Plasma has anti-B antibodies. type A antigen anti-B antibodies Type A B blood. Red blood cells have type A and type B surface antigens. Plasma has neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies. type A antigen type B antigen Type O blood. Red blood cells have neither type A nor type B surface antigens. Plasma has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies. anti-A antibody anti-B antibody

64. How can you remember what each blood type means? Blood types are named after the protein antigens that are present on the surface of the RBCs, except type O whose RBCs entirely lack A and B antigens. Blood types only have antibodies to antigens they do not have on the surface of their RBCs. For example, someone with type A blood has A proteins on the surfaces of her RBCs. B antibodies in her blood. What can you say about someone with type AB blood?

66. Blood types Plasma

67. Determining compatibility for blood transfusion First consider the antigens found on the blood transfusion recipient Second, consider the antibodies found in the donor blood If the antibodies in the donor blood can recognize the antigen on the recipient’s blood then the blood will agglutinate (clump) and cause rejection

69. Blood Compatibility Type O blood is sometimes called the universal donor because the red blood cells of type O blood lack A and B antigens. Type O blood will not agglutinate regardless of the recipient’s antibodies.

70. Blood Compatibility Type AB blood is called the universal recipient because the plasma lacks A and B antibodies Type AB recipient blood won’t clump with any type of donor blood

71. Testing your understanding Can a person with blood type O accept blood type A without agglutination occurring? Why can people with AB blood type accept more blood types than people with type O, A, or B? Which blood type is able to be used most often as a donor blood type?

72. Rh blood groups The Rh factor is often included when expressing a blood type by naming it positive or negative People with the Rh factor are positive and those without it are negative Rh antibodies only develop in a person when they are exposed to the Rh factor from another’s blood (usually a fetus)

73. When is Rh Factor Important During pregnancy under these conditions: Mom:Rh- Dad:Rh+ Fetus:Rh+ In this case some Rh+ blood can leak from the fetus to the Mom during birth causing the mother to make Rh antibodies

74. When is Rh factor Important This can be a problem is the mother has a 2 nd fetus that is Rh+ because she now has antibodies that can leak across the placenta and attack the fetus This condition is known as hemolytic disease of the newborn that can lead to death

76. Hemolytic Disease of Newborn or Erythroblastosis fetalis Can be fatal Can cause jaundice because of degrading hemoglobin in blood

77. Hemolytic Disease Prevention Rh- women are given an injection of anti-Rh antibodies no later than 72 hours after birth to an Rh+ baby These antibodies attack fetal red blood cells in mother before the mother’s immune system can make antibodies This will have to be repeated if an Rh- mother has another Rh+ baby in case she has later pregnancies

80. AB incompatibility < 20% of all pregnancies Anti-A and anti-B antibody molecules are IgM and therefore very large Do not cross placenta Do not cause hemolytic disease IgG is occasionally produced and does cross placenta causing hemolytic disease

81. EC Reports-1 Discuss the problems with athletes and blood doping. Is this legal? What are the advantages? What are the disadvantages? Some athletes have been stripped of their medals because they tested positive for performance-enhancing substances in their blood. Why would someone use such a drug if they knew they could be caught and disqualified from the competition? How do the Olympics keep ahead of the new methods for illegally enhancing performance? Why do so many of our US Olympic teams train at high altitudes?

82. EC Reports-2 Discuss the use of stem cells from the blood in the treatment of leukemia and other blood diseases. How successful is this? How is it done? What types of stem cells are used? Why would parents choose to save cord blood? What diseases can be treated with cord blood? What are the costs associated with saving cord blood?

83. EC Reports-3 Read BIOLOGY MATTERS-Health “Aspirin and Heart Disease” on page 122 of the text. Recount the differences between a negative and a positive feedback mechanism. Have students discuss the advantages and disadvantages of inhibiting the activity of thromboxane. If a family member has had a stroke or strokes, would you consider taking daily baby aspirins as you would a vitamin supplement?