1. The Enlightenment Political Philosophers

2. Philosophes ► Based ideas on “natural law” = universal moral law ► Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1679) - believed humans were naturally violent - absolute monarchy best government

3. ► John Locke (1632-1704) - people have natural rights = life, liberty, & property - government based on social contract

4. ► Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) - separation of power - branches of government [executive, legislative, & judicial]

5. ► Voltaire (1694-1778) - freedom of speech & religion - enlightened monarchy best government

6. ► Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) - A Vindication of the Rights of Women - equal education for men and women

7. ► Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - emotion better guide than logic - “General Will” = will of the majority should run government

8. Law and Religion ► Less value placed on hearsay and on confessions made under torture during trials ► Deism = belief in God, but against organized religion God the watchmaker ► Salons helped to spread new ideas and discoveries (Madame de Pompadour 1721-1764)

9. Enlightened Monarchs ► Rulers who sought to govern using Enlightenment principles ► Frederick II “the Great” (1712-1786) - Prussia - ‘first servant of the state’ - abolished torture, except for treason & murder - established elementary schools - promoted industry & agriculture - freedom of religion - did not end serfdom

10. ► Voltaire was his guest (1750-1753)

11. ► Catherine II “the Great” (1729-1796) - Russia - married Grand Duke Peter - exchanged letters with Voltaire & others - limited use of torture - religious toleration - promoted education = book publishing - established an Academy of Sciences - wanted to free all serfs on crown lands (Pugachev Rebellion 1773)

12. ► Catherine the Great

13. ► Maria Theresa (1717-1780) - Austrian Empire - disagreed with secularism - established elementary schools - freed all crown serfs - limited “robot” - Pragmatic Sanction - fought defensive war vs. Frederick II - had sixteen children {Maria Antonia}

14. ► Maria Theresa; young & older

15. ► Joseph II (1741-1790) - Austrian Empire - son of Maria Theresa - abolished serfdom completely - equal taxes for peasants & nobles - appointed educated middle-class people to government jobs instead of nobles - freedom of the press - confiscated Church property to support free hospitals - religious freedom to Protestants & Jews - banned use of torture

16. ► Joseph II; most enlightened of the Enlightened Monarchs

17. Enlightenment Opponents ► Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) - Reason cannot answer metaphysics (spiritual issues: the existence of God, etc.) - Critique of Pure Reason (1781) > reality consists of separate physical & spiritual worlds *methods of obtaining knowledge varied *physical = senses & reason *spiritual = faith & intuition > He concluded that ideas about religion were true even though reason & science could not explain them.