1. THE ENLIGHTENMENT

2. DEFINITIONS: The Enlightenment: A period of time in which many intellectuals (philosophes) began to question the traditions of society and to look at human processes in a scientific, critical light

3. BELIEFS OF THE PHILOSOPHES: 1. Reason – Universe can be explained through reason 2. Skepticism – everything should be open to questioning and criticism 3. Toleration – all ideas are equally valid 4. Freedom – intellectual freedom, including speech, press, and religion 5. Equality – all people are equal 6. Education – equal education could lead to a perfect society 7. Optimism – science is progress

4. FAMOUS PHILOSOPHES: Voltaire: Organized religion bred intolerance and superstition (Religion should be a private matter) Candide Attacked war, religious persecution, intolerance, and corrupt government Rousseau: Most radical of the Philosophes: 1. People are born good, but corrupted by society 2. Advocated a government based on popular sovereignty or the “general will” (Social Contract)

5. EFFECTS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT: Enlightened thinkers develop an elite form of culture: 1. Travel around the world 2. Meet in either salons or academies 3. Circulation of Newspapers or journals Public culture not heavily affected: 1. Education and literacy remain elusive for majority 2. Relaxation – Rise of popular sports

6. ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISTS: Monarchs who tried to justify absolute rule by claiming to rule in the people’s interest by making good laws, promoting human happiness, and improving society

7. FREDERICK THE GREAT (PRUSSIA): Used rational thought as a tool for greater centralization: 1. Military - Qualify by merit, rather than birth (Meritocracy) 2. Improved educational system – Unified clergy, bureaucracy, and nobility 3. Fostered economic growth through state spending projects 4. Established full religious toleration to Protestants and Catholics, partial to Jews However, he made sure to keep the support of the Nobility: Would not eliminate serfdom on private estates

8. JOSEPH II (AUSTRIA): Used rational thought as a tool for greater centralization: 1. Sought to lesson power of nobility - Abolished serfdom and reformed taxation 2. Freedom of worship for Calvinists and Lutherans, private worship for Jews 3. Brought the Catholic Church under state control – reorganized education of priests 4. Abolished tariffs and encouraged building of roads and canals Joseph II did not go as far to avoid angering the Nobility

9. CATHERINE THE GREAT (RUSSIA): Used rational thought as a tool for greater centralization: 1. Read Voltaire and Montesquieu 2. Codified Russian Law 3. Protector of Orthodox Christians – Edict of Tolerance 4. Continued the economic development of Peter the Great – eliminate internal trade barriers However, she made sure to keep the support of the Nobility: Protected the nobility – did not abolish serfdom

10. SHORT ANSWER QUESTION #2 Historians have sometimes referred to the period from the mid-seventeenth century to the late eighteenth century as the Age of Reason. Provide TWO specific pieces of evidence that support this characterization of the period and explain how they support it. 1. Various advances in scientific knowledge (heliocentric, advances in anatomy, codification of mechanics) 2. Growth in the use of empirical methods based on observation and reasoning 3. Challenges to religious and classical texts as sources of knowledge 4. Attempts to find and discern scientific laws and principles 5. Application of mathematical models to scientific discoveries 6. Mechanistic worldview of the period 7. Insights of the natural world to explain the social sciences 8. Encouragement of scientific research and learned societies

11. SHORT ANSWER QUESTION #2 Historians have sometimes referred to the period from the mid-seventeenth century to the late eighteenth century as the Age of Reason. Provide ONE specific pieces of evidence that undermines this characterization of the period and explain how they support it. 1. Continued belief in supernatural intervention (witchcraft), magic, and astrology 2. Persistence of folk beliefs and prescientific worldviews 3. Age of Reason was mostly an elite phenomenon, and did not influence the vast majority of the population 4. Can by undermined by the excesses committed in the name of reason and enlightenment (e.g. the Reign of Terror)