1. CULTURE AND GENDER Lecture 5

2. Overview Women’s movement in the United States has raised awareness amongst academic communities to evaluate treatment and portraying of women in text book s and research. In research most data gathered from men which sent the question whether knowledge based primarily on men could be generalised to others in general?

3. Conceptual definitions Sex – biological and physiological differences of men and women ; most obvious in anatomical differences in reproductive system, physiological, hormonal, and biochemical differences. Sex role – behaviours and pattern of activities men and women may engage in that they are directly related to their biological differences and process of reproduction. E.g. breastfeeding.

4. Conceptual definitions Sexual identity – degree of awareness and recognition of sex and sex roles an individual may have. E.g. a man knows his capability of impregnate women. Gender – behaviours or pattern activities that a society or culture deems appropriate for men and women. E.g. men are not supposed to be emotional; men are supposed to be the main breadwinner of the family. For women – nurturant, caring, and take care of family

5. Gender role – the degree to which a person adopts the gender specific-behaviours ascribed by his/her culture Gender identity –the degree of being wary or recognise he or she adopts a particular gender role Gender stereotype – psychological or behavioural characteristics typically associated with men and women Conceptual definitions

6. Cross-cultural research on gender Gender stereotypes Gender role ideology and self-concept Hofstede’s study Psychological gender differences across cultures Conformity and obedience Agressiveness

7. Culture and Gender stereotypes Men should be more self-reliant, independent, stronger and emotionally detached than women? Women should be dependent, reliant, weak, nurturant and emotional than men?

8. Williams & Best (1982) : a study in 30 countries, 52-120 respondents per country = 3000; using Adjective Check List (ACL) (300adjectives). - Asked to decide whether each adj was considered more decriptive of a male or female; also what are characteristics associated with men and female in their country. Williams & Best concluded that there was a consensus (2/3 of respondents) on the characteristics of male and female. Culture and Gender stereotypes

9. Williams & Best’s (1982) results:

11. Favourability  mixed results; Strength Activity Interpretation of these results :  Y such differences?  It could be because of division of labour- the psychological characteristics of men and women determined by evolutionary processes ; the role that being associated with them suit them well. Williams & Best’s studies: Men

12.  Another study (Williams & Best, 1990) showed that even children showed the same pattern of gender stereotypes.  Williams, Sattwerwhite, & Best (1999) – males scored higher than females on all the Big5 Personality traits except Agreeableness Williams & Best’s studies:

13. Williams, Sattwerwhite, Best & Inman - in a followup studies in 27 countries found that gender stereotypes higher in countries that were conservative and hierarchical, low degree of Christian affilliation, low SES, low numbers of women attending tertiary education. Williams & Best’s studies:

14. Countries that favour harmony and egalitarisnism, had less traditional sex role orientations, view male stereotypes as less favourable than female streotypes, less gender stereotypes based on the Big 5 personality traits Williams & Best’s studies:

15. Other findings in gender stereotypes - traditional gender stereotypes as mother, father, wife  who is more controlling? Father or Mother? Gender stereotypes increase with age less women compared to men in leading roles

16. Gender role ideology and self-concept Gender role ideology – judgement on the expected role of men and women (what one ought to be like or ought to do) Williams and Best’s (1982) study :  Subjects in 14 countries  Sex role ideology scale  two polar opposites,i.e. “traditional” (Pakistan, Nigeria, India) and “egalitarian” (Ger, Fin, the Oranje).

17. Williams & Best (1990) – study gender differences in self- concept in 14 countries, involving 300 adjectives of ACL - to rate their believe of themselves (real self) and what they would like to be (ideal self) as MASCULINE or FEMININE Men  masculine in real and ideal self Women  ideally wanted be more masculine than real self Gender role ideology and self-concept

18. Hofstede (1980) – studied work-related attitudes in 50 countries. 4 dimensions of culture – masculinity dimension (MA) MA – the degree to which a culture will foster, encourage, or maintain differences between males and females. The higher the score is, the more people favour masculine charateristics. Countries of high MA – Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy Lowest score of MA – Denmark, Netherland, Norway & Sweden Hofstede’s study

19. Psychological gender differences across cultures Perceptual/spatial/cognitive abilities Conformity and obedience Aggressiveness

20. Perceptual /spatial abilities Males are better at maths and spatial reasoning task, whilst women are better at verbal comprehension tasks (e.g. Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974). However, Berry’s (1966) doesn’t support this, as he found in Inuit culture in Canada, no gender differences in spatial abilities. Both need spatial abilities for survival. Other findings showed mix results – similar spatial abilities of men and women. Psychological gender differences across cultures

21. Berry (1992) concluded that men are superior in spatial tasks in cultures that were tight, sedentary (inactive), and agriculturally based; whilst females are superior in loose culture, nomadic, based on hunting and gathering. Van de Flier (1987) – no gender differences in overall intelligence Psychological gender differences across cultures

22. Conformity and obedience Females are more obedient than males Mostly found in tight cultures (?) Agressiveness Males are much more aggressive than females May be due to biological factors, however, environmental factors are important too Psychological gender differences across cultures

23. How does culture influence gender Through socialization Refer to how culture is formed.