1. LO#8: EXPLAIN THE FORMATION OF STEREOTYPES AND THEIR EFFECT ON BEHAVIOR (SAQ) Stereotyping

2. Definition of Stereotype (Pennington, 1986) 1.cognitive process of categorizing people into groups based on visible cues, such as gender, nationality, race, religion, bodily appearance etc. 2. assuming that all members of a group share the same characteristics 3. assigning individuals to these groups and presuming they all possess the same characteristics based on little information other than their possession of the noticeable trait or cue.

3. How Stereotypes are Formed Personal Experience with individuals and groups Gatekeepers: media, parents, other people we are in contact with (especially in-groups)

4. Once stereotypes are formed they act as cognitive schemas in information processing.

5. Problems with Stereotype Formation Grain of Truth Hypothesis: We create generalizations about groups based on one experience. Illusory Correlation: a false relationship is perceived between two variables. Confirmation Bias: We seek out and remember information that confirms what we already believe. False Propaganda: groups/individuals with political or inter-group motives distort information

6. Stereotypes are Over-simplified and overgeneralized Variable across cultures (different cultures may possess different stereotypes) Resistant to change (confirmation bias perpetuates stereotypes)

7. Stereotypes can cause: Prejudice: an attitude (belief plus emotion)that involves unfair prejudgment and allocation of characteristics to individuals that may or may not be true. Discrimination: the behavior of treating someone differently based on his/her group membership rather than individual merit.

8. Social Theories of Prejudice Intergroup Conflict Theory: Conflict naturally exists between groups who are competing for limited resources. Competition will always provoke prejudice. Minimal Group Theory: Merely dividing people into groups causes prejudice because people will experience prejudice toward out-groups to enhance self-esteem. Scapegoating Theory: socially frustrating situations lead to aggression which is displaced onto out-groups.

9. Stereotype Threat Definition: The effect of stereotypes on an individual’s performance It occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically, or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm that stereotype.

10. Stereotype Threat Study (Steele & Aronson, 1995) AIM: To see the effect of stereotype threat on performance. METHODS: African American and European American participants were given a difficult 3o minute verbal test. Before the test, one group was told it was a genuine test of verbal ability. Another group was told it was a lab test that was used to study how certain problems were generally solved.

11. FINDINGS With the instruction in the first group, African American participants scored lower than European Americans. The second group showed higher scores for African Americans and similar scores between African Americans and European Americans. Conclusion: Stereotype can affect the performance of members of a group if they believe in the stereotype.

12. Follow-up Studies Subsequent studies produced similar results using females in mathematics and lower social class.

13. Spotlight Anxiety Stereotype threat turns on something called spotlight anxiety which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance.

14. Stereotype Threat and Student Athlete Study Dee, 2010 AIM: To determine if stereotype threat would influence student athletes’ test performance. METHODS: Athlete and non-athlete participants, all students at Swarthmore College, were divided into two group. The first group was given a brief questionnaire about their involvement in athletics and frequency of scheduling conflicts as a result of athletics. The second group was not asked these questions. Both groups were then given 30 minutes to answer GRE questions. Finally, both group were given a short exercise to determine if they had activated the implied athlete stereotype.

15. FINDINGS For both groups, the average score on the test was about 74 percent. Athletes in group one (which was given the stereotype-threat treatment) earned test scores significantly lower than those who did not. On average, the scores of athletes in group one were lower by 11 percentage points, 14 percent below the average for non-athletes. Dee believes this outcome confirms his hypothesis that some of the academic achievement gap between athletes and non-athletes -- at least at his institution -- can be explained by athletes psyching themselves into below- average performance.