1. -Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
3 modern religions came out of the ancient Near East and rose to prominence in art and culture as the Roman Empire diminished
They are:
-Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
-all monotheistic (share the concept of the same, single God)
-all “religions of the book” (have written records of God’s will and words)
-Judaism and Christianity existed within the Roman Empire
This chapter concentrates on early Jewish and Christian art and Byzantine art (art out of and influenced by Constantinople)

2. Balkans
Title: Jewish, Early Christian, and Byzantine Worlds
Key locations: Canaan—Jewish holy land
Constantinople--byzantine
Ravenna—city that gains importance in west b/c of trade w/ Constantinople
Venice—ditto
Sicily—blends numerous cultures

3. -trace their origins to Hebrews from Canaan
Judaism:
-trace their origins to Hebrews from Canaan
-believe themselves to be God’s chosen people
-await the Messiah, “anointed one”
-book: Hebrew Scriptures; Torah; 1st 5 books of scripture
-10 commandments; cornerstone of Jewish law
-law forbade worship of idols
-early art reflects influence of Near Eastern, Roman and Greek art
Jews; Semitic-speaking people called Hebrews from Canaan (present Palestine/Israel area)
According to Torah; God promised Jewish patriarch Abraham that Canaan would be a homeland for the Jews—important idea to this day
Hebrews were slaves in Egypt and Moses led them out to Canaan; settlement there started approx 1000 BCE
During this exodus, God gave Moses the 10 commandments—kept in gold covered Ark of the Covenant
Forbidding of idols made representational artwork suspect
Title: Menorahs and Ark of the Covenant
Medium: Wall painting
Size: 3'11" X 5'9" (1.19 X 1.8 m)
Date: 3rd century
Source/ Museum: In a Jewish catacomb, Torlonia, Rome
Menorahs and Ark of the Covenant; Wall painting
3'11" X 5'9“; 3rd century; In a Jewish catacomb, Torlonia, Rome

4. Early Jewish Timeline:
-c. 900 BCE; 1st temple built in Jerusalem to house Ark of the Covenant
-c. 586 BCE; Babylonians conquer Jerusalem, destroy temple, steal Ark
-c. 539 BCE; Persians conquer Babylonians, allow Hebrews to rebuild temple; Second Temple
-c. 37 BCE; Canaan becomes part of the Roman Empire; Second Temple restored
-c. 70 CE; Temple destroyed by Titus of Rome (sack of Jerusalem commemorated in the Arch of Titus)

5. From a house-synagogue, Dura-Europos, Syria
Wall with Torah niche; Tempera on plaster; section approx. 40' long; 244–45 CE
From a house-synagogue, Dura-Europos, Syria
Torah niche
-detail shows static, 2-d figures that seem to float on a neutral background
-frontal pose and strong outlines are features of later byzantine art
Earliest examples of Jewish art are from Hellenistic and Roman periods; this painting from early Synagogue found in ancient city of Dura-Europos shows scenes from Jewish history
Upper image shows niche in wall for torah scrolls
Detail shows story of finding the baby Moses; who was put out in the river to save him after a pharaoh decreed that all Jewish 1st born sons be killed—ends up raised by Pharaoh's daughter
Title: Wall with Torah niche
Medium: Tempera on plaster
Size: section approx. 40' (12.19 m) long
Date: 244–45
Source/ Museum: From a house-synagogue, Dura-Europos, Syria / Reconstructed in the National Museum, Damascus, Syria
The Finding of the Baby Moses; Detail of a wall painting from a house-synagogue, Dura-Europos

6. -faith formally recognized by Roman Empire in 313 CE
Christians:
-believe in one God who is manifest in three forms; Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Trinity)
-Jesus of Nazareth; son of God on earth; preached his ideas to his disciples
-teachings recorded between 70 and 100 CE in New Testament books written by four evangelists; Matthew, Mark, Luke and John; known as the Gospel; “good news” (Hebrew Scriptures are Old Testament books)
-faith formally recognized by Roman Empire in 313 CE
-spreads widely in 400s
-as educated Romans converted, the faith became increasingly elaborate, organized and doctrinal
Gospel from old English translation of Latin work derived from the Greek “evangelion” meaning “good news”

7. Catacomb of Commodilla; Late 4th century; Near Rome
Little purely Christian art prior to 300 CE;
these catacombs feature conventions adapted from other faiths, specifically the scene on the right is a Jewish image depicting Moses striking water from the rock (old testament story); but used here as Peter miraculously bringing water from a rock to baptize prisoners;
images are identical except for the Christian context; Jesus on the ceiling and symbol for Alpha and Omega
syncretism
Title: Cubiculum of Leonis, Catacomb of Commodilla
Date: Late 4th century
Source/ Museum: Near Rome
Catacomb of Commodilla; Late 4th century; Near Rome
syncretism: artists assimilate images from other traditions and give them new meanings

8. Good Shepherd, Orants, and Story of Jonah; Painted ceiling; Late 3rd–early 4th century; Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus, Rome
Syncretism in early Christian art;
Orants: figures w/ arms outstretched; either pagan, Jewish or Christian, depending on context
Good shepherd: in pagan art, he was Apollo or Hermes the shepherd, became Good Shepherd of the psalms and gospels to Christians and Jews
Early Christian catacomb painting resembles Roman wall paintings, but imagery is secondary to the meaning
early Christian sculpture before time of Constantine is even more rare than painting
Title: Good Shepherd, Orants, and Story of Jonah
Medium: Painted ceiling
Date: Late 3rd–early 4th century
Source/ Museum: Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus, Rome
Title: The Good Shepherd
Medium: Marble
Size: height 19¾" (50.2 cm), width 16" (15.9 cm)
Date: Second half of the 3rd century
Source/ Museum: Eastern Mediterranean, probably Anatolia (Turkey) / The Cleveland Museum of Art. John L. Severance Fund,
orant figure
good shepherd
The Good Shepherd; Marble; height 19¾“; Second half of the 3rd century; Eastern Mediterranean, probably Anatolia (Turkey)

9. man with a youth teacher good shepherd orant
syncretism made it possible for coffin makers to make tomb chests like this in advance with imagery that could have been pagan, but can also represent Christianity,
orant stands in the center; teacher or philosopher reads the scroll to the right, then a Good shepherd and an older man places his hand on the head of a child to the far right
to Christian; orant is the Christian soul; seated man is the teaching Christ; followed by Christ the Good Shepherd and a baptism
Title: Sarcophagus from the church of Santa Maria Antiqua
Medium: Marble
Size: 1'11 ¼" X 7'2" (5.45 X 2.2 m)
Date: c. 270
Source/ Museum: Rome
Sarcophagus from the church of Santa Maria Antiqua; Marble; 1'11 ¼" X 7'2"
c. 270

10. Christian Church Structure:
Bottom up:
Priests head
Parishes; parts of
Diocese; geographical areas governed by
Bishops
Bishop of Rome becomes Bishop of Constantinople becomes
Pope (Head of Western Church; in Rome) Patriarch (Head of Eastern Church; in Constantinople)
East and West Churches split in 1054;
West = Western or Catholic Church
East = Eastern or Orthodox Church
Well-educated, upper class Romans joined Church and it grew
brought new structure and philosophical flowering in the Church; elaborate religious ceremonies developed, mostly about the Eucharist; wine and bread = body and blood of Christ; Holy Communion or Mass
Required special buildings, churches and baptisteries; increasingly elaborate

11. Imperial Christian Art and Architecture:
-313 CE, Constantine I issues Edict of Milan; grants all people in the Roman Empire the freedom to worship whatever religion they wish
-in 4th and 5th centuries, Christianity flourishes and enters a new sophisticated philosophical and ethical system
-Church scholars edit and comment on the Bible
-papal secretary, St. Jerome, translates Hebrew and Greek versions of the Bible into Latin
-translated version called the Vulgate Bible; completed 404 CE. Becomes official version of the Bible
vulgate from Latin vularis, meaning “common” or “popular”; same origin as word vulgar
these developments coincide with dramatic increase in size and splendor of Christian churches

12. Greek and roman temples usually centered around the idea of shelter for an altar where rituals could be performed;
Christian churches needed a place for the whole community to gather in worship and for
liturgical activities (customary public worship done by a specific religious group, according to its particular traditions.)
Therefore—they looked to Roman basilicas (general meeting places with courts) and tholos tombs for building plan inspiration for their churches and shrines
These images show basilica-plan churches
Narthex: essentially entrance lobby
Clerestory; upper level above the nave; with windows to let in light
Transept: not shown; cross section that goes in front of the apse in some churches; makes a T
Title: Elements of Architecture: Basilica-Plan and Central-Plan Churches

13. Reconstruction drawing of Old St. Peter's Basilica, Rome
One of earliest and most influential churches was Old St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome
Sponsored by Constantine; built to replace the humble monument over what was believed to be the location of St. Peter’s burial
Intended to protect the tomb of Peter and make it accessible to the faithful
Unusual for it’s double side aisles on either side of the nave
Other new element was the transept—large hall that crossed the front of the apse—area provided additional space for large number of clergy serving the church
Building served as a burial site, pilgrimage shrine (celebrating martyrdom of St. Peter and his relics) and a congregational church
Remained the largest Christian church until the 1000s
Building was replaced by a new building in 1500s—hence, no pictures
Title: Reconstruction drawing of Old St. Peter's Basilica, Rome
Size: approx. 394' (120 m) long and 210' (64 m) wide
Date: c. 320–27; Atrium added in later 4th century
Reconstruction drawing of Old St. Peter's Basilica, Rome
approx. 394' long and 210' wide; c. 320–27; Atrium added in later 4th century

14. Painting shows the nave (main hall) and colonnade (row of columns) dividing the nave from the aisles
Wood timber roof—later replaces by masonry roofs in medieval period
Since the building no longer survives, all we know of its design is based on writing, images like this painting and archeological evidence from the site and by studying later churches that were inspired by it.
Title: Old St. Peter’s (interior)
Medium: Painting
Date: 16th century
Source/ Museum: San Martino ai Monte, Rome

15. Most early Christian churches have been built over, but Santa Sabina is basically like it was in the 400s
Basic elements of a basilica church evident with apse, clerestory in this image
Title: Church of Santa Sabina. Exterior view from the southeast
Date: c. 422–32
Source/ Museum: Rome
Church of Santa Sabina. Exterior view from the southeast ; c. 422–32; Rome

16. The Ascension of Elijah; Cypress wood;
nave arcade
Church of Santa Sabina. Interior view from the south aisle near the sanctuary to the entrance; c. 422–32
Interior of Santa Sabina; long hall is nave, aisle separated from the nave by a row of columns; colonnade, but since columns are toped w/ arches; nave arcade, not colonnade (which would have flat tops between arches)
Church still has original carved wood doors; carved w/ scenes from old and new testament
Notice the interior of this early church is fairly plain and classical; Corinthian columns, some decoration around arches and the door; this will change
Title: Church of Santa Sabina. Interior view from the south aisle near the sanctuary to the entrance
Date: c. 422–32
Title: The Ascension of Elijah
Medium: Cypress wood
Date: 420s
Source/ Museum: Panel from the doors of the Church of Santa Sabina, Rome
The Ascension of Elijah; Cypress wood;
Panel from the doors of the Church of Santa Sabina, Rome

17. Parting of Lot and Abraham Mosaic Panel approx. 4'11" X 6'8" c. 432–40
Nave arcade of the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome
-mosaic decoration like we saw in Rome and Pompeii is used in churches with illustrative scenes from the Bible
-not just intended to instruct; intended to glorify God with their splendor
-some color modulation and gradation that indicated rounded forms (Classical influence) but with strong outlines that flatten the images—this tendency increases
Mosaic decoration like we saw in Rome and Pompeii used in churches with illustrative scenes from the Bible; but not just intended to instruct; intended to glorify God with their splendor
Some color modulation and gradation that indicated rounded forms (Classical in reference) but with strong outlines that flatten the images—this tendency increases
Title: Parting of Lot and Abraham
Medium: Mosaic
Size: Panel approx. 4'11" X 6'8" (1.2 X 2 m)
Date: 432–40
Source/ Museum: Nave arcade of the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome

18. Plan and section, Church of Santa Costanza, Rome., c. 350
Another type of Christian building based on Classical architecture; central plan church (like tholos tombs of Greece and the Aegean)
Was the model for tombs for martyr’s (someone who suffers persecution and death for refusing to denounce their beliefs)
churches and baptisteries (part of a church or separate building used for performing baptisms (washing away sin with water; initiation rite into Christian faith)
Santa Costanza, built for daughter of Constantine, earliest surviving example of this style (originally her mausoleum)
Title: Plan and section, Church of Santa Costanza, Rome., c. 350
Plan and section, Church of Santa Costanza, Rome., c. 350

19. -decorations reflect transitional imagery of the pagan and Christian
Church of Santa Costanza. Ambulatory with harvesting mosaic. Niche at left with mosaic of Christ; c. 350
Rome
-decorations reflect transitional imagery of the pagan and Christian
-naked cherubs (Cupid); grape vines (Bacchus) but the babies are also Christian symbols and the grapes became symbols of the wine for Christ’s blood (Eucharist)
Interior of Santa Costanza originally covered with mosaics and fine marble;
Title: Church of Santa Costanza. Ambulatory with harvesting mosaic. Niche at left with mosaic of Christ
Date: c. 350
Source/ Museum: Rome/ Canali Photobank, Capriolo (BS)
Title: Harvesting of Grapes
Medium: Mosaic
Size: Mosaic
Source/ Museum: Ambulatory vault, Church of Santa Costanza, Rome
Harvesting of Grapes; Mosaic; c. 350
Ambulatory vault, Church of Santa Costanza, Rome

20. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia; c. 425–26; Ravenna
As Rome’s political importance dwindled, northern Italian cities on the eastern coast gained importance because they could trade with Constantinople (capital Constantine set up in early 300s)
Ravenna; important town
This mausoleum, one of earliest surviving Christian structures in Ravenna; funerary chapel (central plan, tholos style, like Santa Costanza)
Cross-shape; cruciform in design
Plain outside contrasts sharply with decorated insides
Title: Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
Date: c. 425–26
Source/ Museum: Ravenna
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia; c. 425–26; Ravenna

21. Good Shepherd, lunette over the entrance
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. View from entrance, barrel-vaulted arms housing sarcophagi, lunette Mosaic of the Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence
c. 425–26; Ravenna
Good Shepherd, lunette over the entrance
Mosaic; c. 425–26; Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna
-decorated insides meant to contrast with exterior in symbolic representation of the passage from the real world to the supernatural
-artists working in 400s transform Roman realism to more abstraction, better suited to their patron’s religious goals
Many familiar Classical elements, like shading on figures, good shepherd, elements of natural landscape (characteristic of Rome) but more stylized
Christ is shown as youthful, with halo of gold around his head (the way he is portrayed changes over time); in early Christian art, the actual crucifixion is rarely depicted, for example
Title: Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. View from entrance, barrel-vaulted arms housing sarcophagi, lunette Mosaic of the Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence
Date: c. 425–26
Source/ Museum: Ravenna
Title: Good Shepherd, lunette over the entrance
Medium: Mosaic
Source/ Museum: Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna

22. -Early Byzantine (1st Golden Age); 527 – 726 -726 – 843; iconoclasm
Byzantine Art:
3 periods-
-Early Byzantine (1st Golden Age); 527 – 726
-726 – 843; iconoclasm
-Middle Byzantine; 843 – 1204
-1204 – 1261; Christian Crusaders occupy Constantinople
-Late Byzantine; 1261 – 1453
-ends with empire’s fall to the Ottoman Turks
Byzantine is the art of Constantinople (Roman empire capital established by Constantine) and the areas under its influence
Ancient name of city was Byzantium; hence byzantine
Given Constantinople’s location on the eastern edge of the Balkan peninsula; it regulated trade between Europe and Asia and regulated sea trade from the Aegean to the Black Sea—made for wealthy merchants and heavy patronage of the arts, especially Christian art

23. -associated with the rule of Justinian I (527-65)
Early Byzantine: (527 – 726)
-associated with the rule of Justinian I (527-65)
-empire stretched from N. Africa to Sicily, parts of Italy and Spain and Balkan peninsula; stopped at Persian border to the east
-artistic influence from Syria and Palestine combines with Classical influence to create distinct Byzantine style
-move toward abstraction replaces naturalism in art
Secret of their early success was invulnerable capital protected by these walls; 4 ½ mi long along the city’s only vulnerable stretch; with a moat and huge towers
Used both stone for strength and brick for flexibility—creating the stripes; effect later used decoratively on other Byzantine buildings
Title: Land walls of Constantinople
Date: Begun 412–13
Source/ Museum: Istanbul. Photo: Josephine Powell, Rome
Land walls of Constantinople; Begun 412–13

24. Church of Hagia Sophia. View from the southwest; 532–37; Istanbul
Justinian and his wife Theodora undertook massive building projects in Constantinople
Little survives; Hagia Sophia is one exception
Church designed to embody imperial power and Christian glory
Built in only 5 years by skilled laborers who refined their masonry techniques from building the city’s wall
considered finest example of Byzantine architecture
Title: Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. Church of Hagia Sophia. View from the southwest
Date: 532–37
Source/ Museum: Istanbul
Church of Hagia Sophia. View from the southwest; 532–37; Istanbul

25. Church of Hagia Sophia. Interior
Main dome supported on Pendentives; triangular sections between arches (4 huge arches making the walls) that form an opening on which a dome can sit; first use of pendentives for dome support in a major building
Different from the Pantheon dome that rested on a giant, thick, barrel—creates a structure that can be branched off of, using barrel vaults, etc.
Large dome and windows make for light-filled space—note the small people
creates the feeling that the dome floats
Dome has withstood several earthquakes since it was built; though some repairs have been made over the years
diameter of dome; 102’
Title: Plan and section of the Church of Hagia Sophia; Church of Hagia Sophia. Interior
pendentive
Church of Hagia Sophia. Interior

26. For pantheon, we saw a building with a large dome supported by a thick-walled barrel/cylinder
In early Christian buildings, we see domes supported by two newer conventions; pendentives and squinches
Saw pendentives on Hagia Sophia
Squinches allow for octagonal cross-section under the dome
Squinch is a piece of construction used for filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a proper base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome.
Both used by byzantine builders; Western European and Muslim builders preferred squinches—which were earlier solution
Title: Elements of Architecture: Pendentives and Squinches

27. Plan and cutaway drawing, church of San Vitale, Ravenna
early byz Church of San Vitale in Ravenna shows good example of squinch construction; notice octagon (one side extended to connect with apse)
Dome on outside hidden by octagon shell with tiled roof
Title: Plan and cutaway drawing, church of S. Vitale, Ravenna
Date: Under Construction From c. 520; consecrated 547; mosaics, C. 546–48
Plan and cutaway drawing, church of San Vitale, Ravenna
Under Construction From c. 520; consecrated 547; mosaics, C. 546–48

28. architecture has distant roots in Roman Santa Costanza
Title: Church of S. Vitale, Interior view across the central space toward the sanctuary apse with mosaic showing Christ Enthroned, flanked by Saint Vitalis and Bishop Ecclesius.
date: Consecrated 547
Source/ Museum: Ravenna
Church of S. Vitale, Interior view across the central space toward the sanctuary apse with mosaic showing Christ Enthroned, flanked by Saint Vitalis and Bishop Ecclesius.

29. Church of S. Vitale, south wall of the sanctuary
Abel and Melchizedek shown In the lunette (at right)
Christ Enthroned, Flanked By Saint Vitalis and Bishop Ecclesius in the half dome
Mosaic work inside San Vitale combines imperial ritual, old testament narrative and Christian liturgical symbolism
Notice how almost every surface is covered with some kind of decoration, as opposed to Early Christian church of Santa Sabina; distinctive Byzantine style
Title: Church of S. Vitale, south wall of the sanctuary. Abel and Melchizedek shown In the lunette (at right), and Christ Enthroned, Flanked By Saint Vitalis and Bishop Ecclesius in the half dome
Date: Consecrated 547
Source/ Museum: Church of San Vitale, Ravenna

30. Emperor Justinian and His Attendants, North wall of the apse; Mosaic; 8'8" X 12“; Church of San Vitale, Ravenna
Mosaics showing rulers Justinian and wife Theodora (under who’s rule, the church was built) show Roman illusionistic devices; like the swags of drapery around the empress, the half-shell covering her head, door frames, but they no longer seem to represent actual space
Byz artists no longer conceive of pictorial space as going backward in the picture (like the picture is a window to another world); rather they conceive of pictorial space as starting w/ the picture and moving toward the viewer; the space between the picture plane and the viewer
See parallel lines that look like they would diverge in space—like the base of the pedestal near empress, creates the feel that the objects “tip up”
Reverse perspective
Title: Emperor Justinian and His Attendants, North wall of the apse
Medium: Mosaic
Size: 8'8" X 12" (2.64 X 3.65 m)
Date: Consecrated 547
Source/ Museum: Church of San Vitale, Ravenna
Title: Empress Theodora and Her Attendants, South wall of the apse
reverse perspective
Empress Theodora and Her Attendants, South wall of the apse; Mosaic; 8'8" X 12“; Church of San Vitale, Ravenna

31. Church of Sant’Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna
The Transfiguration of Christ with Sant’Apollinare, First Bishop of Ravenna; Mosaics
Consecrated 549 apse,
Church of Sant’Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna
Good Shepherd, lunette over the entrance
Mosaic; c. 425–26; Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna
basilica plan church built at same time as San Vitale in Ravenna shows changes in representational styles from 100 yrs earlier
Sant’Apollinare apse show images of Christ’s transfiguration; realization that he is divine, with highly abstracted and orderly elements of the natural world around him—bear little resemblance to the actual natural world
also, Christ shown as more mature
Early Christian Galla Placidia mosaic, though flatter than Roman imagery, show some natural space; Christ shown as young
stylization and abstraction shows focus on getting the symbolic message across efficiently
Title: The Transfiguration of Christ with Sant’Apollinare, First Bishop of Ravenna
Medium: Mosaics
Date: Consecrated 549 apse, 6th century; wall above apse, 7th and 9th centuries; side panels, 7th century
Source/ Museum: Church of Sant’Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna

32. manuscript: hand written
- illuminated manuscripts become important source for artwork during Byzantine
manuscript: hand written
illuminated: manuscript decorated with gold and colors
codex: sheets of parchment or paper bound together like the modern book (as opposed to a roll; scroll)
parchment: scraped and trimmed sheep skin or calfskin
vellum: same as parchment, but softer and lighter
vellum and parchment were too thick and heavy to put the whole Bible in one book, so individual sections would be made into separate books
byzantine manuscripts often made with costly materials; by monks
this one actually has a purple background with gold writing—purple; costly dye, so for royalty; probably made for imperial patron
Roman style rounded forms; people, but purple background and gold letters make it other-worldly
Title: Rebecca at the Well
Medium: Tempera, gold, and silver paint on purple-dyed vellum
Size: 13 ½ X 9⅞" (33.7 X 25 cm)
Date: Early 6th century
Source/ Museum: Page from the Book of Genesis (known as The Vienna Genesis) / Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna
Rebecca at the Well ; Tempera, gold, and silver paint on purple-dyed vellum; 13 ½ X 9⅞“; Early 6th century
Page from the Book of Genesis (known as The Vienna Genesis)

33. The Ascension (left); The Crucifixion and Resurrection (right)
Rabbula gospels show different approach to religious art; made by monk named Rabbula
present Christian story through complex, multileveled symbolism
ascension of Christ into heaven; under Christ are symbols for the 4 evangelists; Mark (lion), Matthew (angel), Luke (ox), John (eagle)
first depiction of crucifixion we’ve seen; shows alert Christ in royal purple robes
Title: The Ascension
Size: 13½ X 10½" (33.7 X 26.7 cm)
Date: 586
Source/ Museum: Page from the Rabbula Gospels, from Beth Zagba, Syria / Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence
Title: The Crucifixion and Resurrection
The Ascension (left); The Crucifixion and Resurrection (right)
13½ X 10½“; c. 586
Page from the Rabbula Gospels, from Beth Zagba, Syria

34. icon: from Greek eikon meaning image
-images of Christ, Mary and the saints that early Christians looked at while praying
-were thought to have miraculous powers
-discomfort about icon worship grew into major controversy in Eastern Church, causing Emperor Leo III to begin iconoclasm in 726 (destruction of icons)
b/c of iconoclasm, few examples of icons survive.
in this one, Christ-child, Mary and angels painted with almost realistic Roman techniques, but male saints are very stylized, with no hint of a body under the robes
Title: Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels Icon
Medium: Encaustic on wood
Size: 27 X 18⅞" (69 X 48 cm)
Date: Second half of the 6th century
Source/ Museum: Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt
Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels Icon; Encaustic on wood; 27 X 18⅞"
Second half of the 6th century
Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt

35. -begins with the end of iconoclasm
Middle Byzantine: 843 – 1204
-begins with the end of iconoclasm
-size of Constantinople’s empire decreases slightly
-experiences cultural and artistic rebirth
-art reflects spiritual focus of wealthy, autocratic leadership
-church design becomes increasingly complex with richly decorated interiors
-period ends with invading Christian Crusaders from the West (much of the art lost/destroyed in the Crusades)
autocratic; one person (ruler) possesses unlimited power
preference for smaller, more intimate spaces leads to development of multi-domed churches

36. -image reflects growing desire for a more intimate, personal religion
-Early Byzantine tradition of icon painting copied by artists living in Kievan Rus (area under Viking control to east and north of Constantinople; near Modern Russia)
-this icon from Constantinople was taken to Vladimir (city in Kievan Rus) sometime in mid 1100s
-image reflects growing desire for a more intimate, personal religion
Kievan Rus; 1st eastern slavic state, to north and east of Constantinople
icon thought to protect the city of Vladimir where it now resides
eliminate details to focus on the essential emotions of the scene
Title: Virgin of Vladimir Icon
Medium: Tempera on panel
Size: height approx. 31" (78 cm)
Date: Faces, 11th–12th century; the figures have been retouched
Source/ Museum: Probably from Constantinople / Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow
Virgin of Vladimir Icon ; Tempera on panel; height approx. 31“; 11th–12th century; the figures have been retouched
Probably from Constantinople

37. -because of destruction caused by the Crusades, most examples of Middle Byzantine art and architecture are outside Constantinople
areas to the north in Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, artists adopted Orthodox Christianity and Byzantine culture—styles still popular in parts of that region today
somewhat confusing and compartmentalized interior in this cathedral from Kiev
Kievan mosaics established a system of iconography that came to be followed in all Russian Orthodox churches.
Title: Interior, Cathedral of Santa Sophia. Apse mosaic: Orant Virgin and Communion of the Apostles
Date: 1037–46
Source/ Museum: Kiev
Interior, Cathedral of Santa Sophia. Apse mosaic: Orant Virgin and Communion of the Apostles; 1037–46; Kiev

38. Monastery Churches at Hosios Loukas, Greece
Late 10th century, early 11th century
Greece, technically under byzantine control, though an outpost, followed trends of Middle Byzantine style; like this church; Hosios Loukas
alternating bricks on outside mimic the pattern on the city’s walls from Early Byzantine period on exterior
interior shows complex variety of forms; domes, groin vaults, barrel vaults, pendentives, and squinches, all built on relatively small scale; very complicated/intimate space; paintings and mosaics show bright colors and dramatic images
Title: Monastery Churches at Hosios Loukas, Greece (View from the east)
Date: Katholikon (left) early 11th century, and Church of the Theotokos Cristy Late 10th century
Source/ Museum: Henri Stierlin, Geneva
Central Domed Space and Apse (the Naos), Katholikon

39. -compositions based on intellectual, rather than physical ideals
-middle Byzantine artists in Greece show renewed interest in models from the past—
-compositions based on intellectual, rather than physical ideals
-eliminate all details to focus on the essential emotions of the message
-unlike the Rabbula Gospels, Christ does not look alert; his eyes are closed and he has no royal robe
-gold background creates feel of otherworldly space
-timelessness and simplicity meant to aide the Christian worshipper seeking to achieve mystical union with the divine through prayer
this crucifixion exhibits an emotional appeal to the viewer—elicits sympathy
in this crucifixion, though, Christ does not look alert, like the Rabbula Gospels; eyes are closed in death and no royal clothes
simplification of image and forms to essentials adds to the emotional power of the image;
Title: Crucifixion
Medium: Mosaic
Date: Late 11th century
Source/ Museum: Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece. East wall of the north arm
Crucifixion; Mosaic; Late 11th century; Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece.

40. Paint and gold on vellum sheet size 14 X 10½"
-Middle byzantine illuminated manuscripts also combine intense religious expression with elegance and a heightened appreciation for rich decoration; like the churches
-this Psalter (a book of psalms) reflects Classical influence with conventions from Roman wall painting; lush landscape and foliage, idealized, rounded figures and atmospheric perspective
Title: David the Psalmist
Medium: Paint and gold on vellum
Size: sheet size 14 X 10½" (35.6 X 26 cm)
Date: Second half of the 10th century
Source/ Museum: Page from the Paris Psalter, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris
David the Psalmist
Paint and gold on vellum
sheet size 14 X 10½"
Second half of the 10th century
Page from the Paris Psalter

41. -Island of Sicily represented special case during Middle Byzantine;
-was Greek colony, then Roman, then ruled by Muslims until mid 800s when Normans (descendents of Vikings who settled Northern France) conquered it.
-in 1100s, Sicily was one of wealthiest and most enlightened kingdoms in Europe;
-the Norman King extended religious tolerance to a diverse population that included Western Europeans, Greeks, Arabs and Jews
-Architecture shows influence of East and West styles; overtly emulated the Byzantine style so the structures offer clues to the lost glory of imperial Constantinople in the Middle Byzantine
-church shows strong juxtaposition of light and dark—contrast—instead of modeling/gradation of forms
Title: Palatine Chapel, view toward the East
Date: Mid-12th century
Source/ Museum: Palermo, Sicily
Palatine Chapel (left)
Mid-12th century; Palermo, Sicily

42. -king’s chamber shows example of secular Byzantine art
-Islamic inspired geometric patterns with stylized vine scrolls and imperial symbols (lions, eagles, griffons)
-reflects a world as formalized and ritualized as Byzantine life was in the imperial and royal courts
griffons; body of lion w/ head and wings of eagle
Title: Chamber of King Roger, Norman Palace
Date: Mid-12th century
Source/ Museum: Palermo, Sicily
Norman Palace
Mid-12th century
Palermo, Sicily

43. Late Byzantine: – 1453
-begins when people of Constantinople expel the Western Christian Crusaders who occupied the city for nearly 60 years
-empire decreased in size to include only small areas of the Balkan peninsula and Greece
-late styles continue to this day in parts of Russia where the center of the Orthodox Church is now located
-Ottoman Turks over ran Constantinople in 1453 and made it part of the Islamic world

44. Funerary Chapel, Church of the Monastery of Christ c. 1310–21
In Chora, Constantinople
late byz; physical requirements of the clergy and liturgy (rituals) took precedence over interior decoration, but church design still reflects skill and elegance
in Constan; many small existing churches were expanded; the Church of the Monastery of Christ in Chora is an example of this and one of few remaining examples of Late Byz style
funerary chapel is entirely painted with themes appropriate for funerals; like the scene of Christ rescuing elderly Adam and Eve from hell
Title: Funerary Chapel, Church of the Monastery of Christ
Date: c. 1310–21
Source/ Museum: In Chora, Constantinople (Present-day Kariye Mazesi, Istanbul, Turkey)
Title: Anastasis
Medium: fresco
Source/ Museum: Apse of the funerary chapel, Church of the Monastery of Christ in Chora / Getty Research Library, Los Angeles. Wim Swaan Photograph Collection, 96, p.21

45. -this icon from Russia illustrated Holy Trinity
-Moscow: the 3rd Rome
-in 1400 and 1500s, Byzantine art flourished outside Constantinople, especially in Moscow
-this icon from Russia illustrated Holy Trinity
-shows late Byzantine use of mathematical conventions to create ideal figures, like the Greeks, but based on an invented ideal geometry (not natural geometry, like Greeks)
-shows personal, expressive style
Moscow considered itself to be 3rd Rome, after Rome, and Constantinople
after fall of Constan to Turks, leadership of Orthodox Church shifted to Moscow
their leaders, the heirs of Caesar (Czar)
circle forms the underlying shape of the features; nonetheless a personal, expressive style
focus is on the figures, simple contours, elongated bodies
Artist: Andrey Rublyov
Title: The Old Testament Trinity (Three Angels Visiting Abraham), icon
Medium: Tempera on panel
Size: 55½ X 44½" (141 X 113 cm)
Date: c. 1410–25
Source/ Museum: Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow
Artist: Andrey Rublyov; The Old Testament Trinity (Three Angels Visiting Abraham), icon
Tempera on panel; 55½ X 44½“;
c. 1410–25
Moscow

46. Recollect, y’all