1. Introduction to Wireless Networking Dimitrios Koutsonikolas 01/27/2016 These slides contain material developed by Lili Qiu for CS386W at UT Austin and by J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross

2. Internet Protocol Stack r Application: supporting network applications m FTP, SMTP, HTTP r Transport: data transfer between processes m TCP, UDP r Network: routing of datagrams from source to destination m IP, routing protocols r Link: data transfer between neighboring network elements m Ethernet, WiFi r Physical: bits “on the wire” m Coaxial cable, optical fibers, radios application transport network link physical 2

3. Multiple Access Protocols application transport network link physical

4. 4 Multiple Access protocols r single shared broadcast channel r two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: interference m collision if node receives two or more signals at the same time multiple access protocol r distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit

5. 5 Ideal Multiple Access Protocol Broadcast channel of rate R bps 1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send at rate R. 2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can send at average rate R/M 3. fully decentralized: m no special node to coordinate transmissions m no synchronization of clocks, slots 4. simple

6. 6 MAC Protocols: a taxonomy Three broad classes: r Channel Partitioning m divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency, code) m allocate piece to node for exclusive use r Random Access m channel not divided, allow collisions m “recover” from collisions r “Taking turns” m nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take longer turns

7. 7 Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA TDMA: time division multiple access r access to channel in "rounds" r each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round r unused slots go idle r example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots 2,5,6 idle 1 3 4 1 3 4 6-slot frame

8. 8 Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA FDMA: frequency division multiple access r channel spectrum divided into frequency bands r each station assigned fixed frequency band r unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle r example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands 2,5,6 idle frequency bands time FDM cable

9. Wireless, Mobile Networks 6-9 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) r unique “code” assigned to each user; i.e., code set partitioning m all users share same frequency, but each user has own “chipping” sequence (i.e., code) to encode data m allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit simultaneously with minimal interference (if codes are “orthogonal”) r encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping sequence) r decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and chipping sequence

10. Wireless, Mobile Networks 6-10 CDMA encode/decode slot 1 slot 0 d 1 = -1 111 1 1 - 1 - 1 -1 - Z i,m = d i. c m d 0 = 1 111 1 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 111 1 1 - 1 - 1 -1 - 111 1 1 - 1 - 1 -1 - slot 0 channel output slot 1 channel output channel output Z i,m sender code data bits slot 1 slot 0 d 1 = -1 d 0 = 1 111 1 1 - 1 - 1 -1 - 111 1 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 111 1 1 - 1 - 1 -1 - 111 1 1 - 1 - 1 -1 - slot 0 channel output slot 1 channel output receiver code received input D i =  Z i,m. c m m=1 M M

11. Wireless, Mobile Networks 6-11 CDMA: two-sender interference using same code as sender 1, receiver recovers sender 1’s original data from summed channel data! Sender 1 Sender 2 channel sums together transmissions by sender 1 and 2

12. 12 Random Access Protocols r When node has packet to send m transmit at full channel data rate.  Two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision”, r Random access MAC protocol specifies: m how to detect collisions m how to prevent collisions m how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed retransmissions) r Examples of random access MAC protocols: m slotted ALOHA m ALOHA m CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

13. 13 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) CSMA: listen before transmit: If channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame r If channel sensed busy, defer transmission r human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

14. 14 CSMA collisions collisions can still occur: propagation delay means two nodes may not hear each other’s transmission collision: entire packet transmission time wasted spatial layout of nodes note: role of distance & propagation delay in determining collision probability

15. 15 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA m collisions detected within short time m colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel wastage r Collision detection: m easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths, compare transmitted, received signals m difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength overwhelmed by local transmission strength

16. PHY Layer application transport network link physical 16

17. 17 Wireless Link Characteristics Differences from wired link …. m decreased signal strength: radio signal attenuates as it propagates through matter (path loss) m interference from other sources: standardized wireless network frequencies (e.g., 2.4 GHz) shared by other devices (e.g., phone); devices (motors, microwaves) interfere as well m multipath propagation (fading): radio signal reflects off objects or ground, arriving at destination at slightly different times Reflection Diffraction Scattering space Signal Strength Wireless is a broadcast medium!

18. 18 Impact of Multipath Propagation Direct signal Reflected signal Received signal

19. Channel characteristics change over time and location –e.g., movement of sender, receiver and/or scatters  quick changes in the power received (short term/fast fading)  slow changes in the average power received (long term/slow fading) short term fading long term fading t power Wireless Link Characteristics (2) – Fading 19

20. Typical Picture 20

21. distance sender transmission detection interference Transmission range –communication possible –low error rate Detection range –detection of the signal possible –no communication possible Interference range –signal may not be detected –signal adds to the background noise Signal Propagation Ranges 21

22. Signal, Noise, and Interference r Signal (S) r Noise (N) m Includes thermal noise and background radiation r Interference (I) m Signals from other transmitting sources r SINR = S/(N+I) (sometimes also denoted as SNR) r Large SINR = easier to extract signal from noise 22

23. dB and Power conversion r dB m Denote the difference between two power levels m (P2/P1)[dB] = 10 * log10 (P2/P1) m P2/P1 = 10^(A/10) m Example 1: P2 = 10 P1, P2/P1=10dB m Example 2: P2/P1 = 33dB, P2 = 2000 P1 r dBm and dBW m Denote the power level relative to 1 mW or 1 W m P[dBm] = 10*log10(P/1mW) m P[dBW] = 10*log10(P/1W) m Example: P = 0.001mW = -30dBm, P = 100W = 20dBW 10dB: factor of 10 3dB: factor of 2 23

24. 24 Wireless Link Characteristics (3) r SNR: signal-to-noise ratio m larger SNR – easier to extract signal from noise r SNR versus BER tradeoffs m given physical layer: increase power -> increase SNR- >decrease BER m given SNR: choose physical layer that meets BER requirement, giving highest throughput 1020 30 40 QAM256 (8 Mbps) QAM16 (4 Mbps) BPSK (1 Mbps) SNR(dB) BER 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -5 10 -6 10 -7 10 -4

25. 25 Rate Adaptation r base station, mobile dynamically change transmission rate (physical layer modulation technique) as mobile moves, SNR varies QAM256 (8 Mbps) QAM16 (4 Mbps) BPSK (1 Mbps) 1020 30 40 SNR(dB) BER 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -5 10 -6 10 -7 10 -4 operating point 1. SNR decreases, BER increase as node moves away from base station 2. When BER becomes too high, switch to lower transmission rate but with lower BER

26. 26 IEEE 802.11 multiple access r 802.11: CSMA - sense before transmitting r Differences from Ethernet m No collision detection (CD)! Difficult to receive (sense collisions) when transmitting due to weak received signals (fading) Can’t sense all collisions in any case: hidden terminal, fading Goal: avoid collisions: CSMA/C(ollision)A(voidance) m Link layer ACKnowledgments/Retransmissions (ARQ) High bit error rates A B C A B C A’s signal strength space C’s signal strength

27. 27 IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA 802.11 sender 1 if sense channel idle for DIFS then transmit entire frame (no CD) 2 if sense channel busy then 2.1 start random backoff time timer counts down while channel idle, freezes when busy, resumes if idle for DIFS transmit when timer expires (why?) 3 if ACK, wait for DIFS, then go to 2.1 (why?) 4 if no ACK, increase random backoff interval, goto 2.1 (why?) 802.11 receiver - if frame received OK return ACK after SIFS (ACK needed due to hidden terminal problem) sender receiver DIFS data SIFS ACK

28. 802.11 Backoff Example 28

29. 802.11 Backoff Example After 15 slot countdown 29

30. 802.11 Backoff Example 30

31. 802.11 Backoff Example 31

32. 802.11 Backoff Example 32

33. 802.11 Backoff Example 33

34. 34 Avoiding collisions (more) idea: allow sender to “reserve” channel rather than random access of data frames: avoid collisions of long data frames r sender first transmits small request-to-send (RTS) packets to BS using CSMA m RTSs may still collide with each other (but they’re short) r BS broadcasts clear-to-send CTS in response to RTS r CTS heard by all nodes m sender transmits data frame m other stations defer transmissions avoid data frame collisions completely using small reservation packets!

35. 35 Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS exchange AP A B time RTS(A) RTS(B) RTS(A) CTS(A) DATA (A) ACK(A) reservation collision defer

36. 36 Wireless, mobility: impact on higher layer protocols r logically, impact should be minimal … m best effort service model remains unchanged m TCP and UDP can (and do) run over wireless, mobile r … but performance-wise: m packet loss/delay due to bit-errors (discarded packets, delays for link-layer retransmissions), and handoff m TCP interprets loss as congestion, will decrease congestion window un-necessarily m delay impairments for real-time traffic m limited bandwidth of wireless links