1. Research Methods Chapter 6: Observation

2. Observation-Participation continuum OBSERVATION -no involvement -no interaction -no influence (-possible?) PARTICIPATION -fully involved in the activities of those being “researched” -high level of interaction and subjectivity (-bias?)

3. Five areas of interest for observational data  Exterior physical signs (e.g., clothing, physical features, hairstyles etc.).  Expressive movement (e.g., gestures, body language etc.).  Physical location (e.g., people’s position in relation to others; their use of space).  In situ conversations (this is a central issue for observational research of online behaviour).  Time-related behaviour (e.g., amount of time dedicated for specific behaviours; different behaviours at different times of day, week, month, year etc).

4. Collecting data  Making notes in-situ…then typing them up ready for analysis  Recording sounds/videos/images (with consent if recording private conversations)  Make sure that you observe carefully selected issues based on a literature-guided framework highlighting the key themes for observation. Can help you prioritise each aspect in terms of its importance to the research project.  Complementing those with interviews, discussions and the gathering of other materials, e.g. documents, to form a “rich” picture

5. Observation of online interaction

7.  Be consistent in defining what you are looking at, when and where you are getting the data.  Produce a consistent method of data collection (e.g., counting system for particular behaviours, typologies of different behaviours).  You must try to ensure that your personal biases do not affect the data (if possible).  Attempt to identify changes caused by particular variables (e.g. differences in behaviour at different times of the day or week).  Ethics and informed consent? Observation as hard science

8.  If describing a particular event or activity, it is important that you provide a rich description of:  the context,  the people involved,  the influence of environmental factors (e.g. lighting, music etc),  objects involved (if relevant) e.g. uniforms, drinks, other social “props” such as mobile phones etc.,  and the minute details of the event or interaction between the people involved. Observation as soft science (interpretivist activity)

9.  The aim is not to produce a “valid” description, but an “authentic” one that attempts to create a nuanced interpretation of events.  You need to show your awareness of broader issues that shaped that event (e.g., if known, the biographical histories of people involved, the type of business/leisure context in which it occurred etc.).  You need to account for your role in influencing the data and in the limitations of your interpretations. Observation as interpretation

10. Participant observation  This assumes that the researcher is part of a social context, group, community etc  The research process is complicated because you must also account for:  Your role in the event. Participant or observer?  Personal biases, limitations and your influence on the data you collected  How you gained entry to a social context (boundaries and problems encountered)

11. Advantages and disadvantages of (participant) observation  Allows researcher to see people and their actions in their natural setting.  It is possible to limit bias in simplistic observational research. However, it is impossible to exclude bias in participant observational studies.  Sometimes, it is the only way to collect information on some issues e.g. drug taking, drinking, fighting etc.  Participant observation allows you to compare what people say they do, with what they actually do.

12. Advantages and disadvantages of (participant) observation  Observation on its own may provide limited information. It is useful if coupled with interviews and some participation.  It may take a long time to gain entry to a group. However, once this is solved, participant observation can provide a unique perspective on what people do.  Knowing that they are being watched may make people change their behaviour.  Not knowing that they are being watched my help to address this, but this raises important issues concerning privacy and informed consent.  Because participant observation usually takes place in a parochial social context, it is often difficult to draw generalisations.

13. Presenting your observations  Anecdotes and observations may be informal and written in the first person.  Reflections on the observations in third person.  Try to identify general themes which are relevant beyond that particular context.  It is often necessary to illustrate one point with several anecdotes, examples and observations.