1. Warm-up What is the difference between asexual and sexual reproduction? Give two ways Would cutting pieces of plants off and replanting the pieces be asexual or sexual reproduction? What about a lizard that can grow another tail? 1

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3. Asexual Reproduction Requires only one parent Offspring are identical to parent In other words, the offspring are exact “clones” of the parent. Mitosis 3

4. Asexual Reproduction Binary Fission Bacteria Protists 4 Binary fission where everything is copied and the organism divides in two.

5. Asexual Reproduction Plant cuttings 5

6. Asexual Reproduction Budding Hydra 6 Budding is a means of asexual reproduction where a new individual develops from an outgrowth of a parent, splits off, and lives independently.

7. Asexual Reproduction Fragmentation 7 Fragmentation is a means of asexual reproduction where a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals.

8. Asexual Reproduction Regeneration 8 Regeneration occurs when a body part has broken off and the organism grows a new one. Example: some lizards

9. Asexual Reproduction Examples of organisms that reproduce asexually Hydra Sea Star Strawberry Archaebacteria Eubacteria Paramecium Yeast 9

10. Sexual Reproduction Requires two parents that each share ½ of the genetic information from each parent reproduction involving the union or fusion of a male (sperm or pollen grain) and a female gamete (egg or seed) Offspring share the characteristics of each parent. 10 Meiosis

11. Sexual Reproduction Examples of organisms that reproduce sexually Chickens Iguanas Lobsters Sharks Humans Butterflies Sunflowers Roses 11

12. Sexual Reproduction Happens 2 ways Internally (inside) The egg is fertilized by sperm inside the female Mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, spiders Externally (outside) The egg is fertilized by sperm outside the female The female lays the eggs and then the male fertilizes them. Fish and some amphibians Plants and fungi (pollen and spores) 12

13. 13 Asexual ReproductionSexual Reproduction Both Types of reproduction in living organisms

14. Mendelian Genetics Character  a heritable feature such as height or flower color Trait  a variation of a character such as tall or short or purple or fat

15. Gregor Mendel Went to school to be a priest, then attended University of Vienna where he learned how to study science through experimentation and mathematics Worked in a monastery-cared for a garden and taught high school Did experiments with pea plants in his garden crossed multiple different colors of pea plants and found that sometimes you get different colors than you would expect

16. Why pea plants? Easy to grow-short life cycle Easily observable traits Mendel removed male parts so he could select which flowers mated with which For all seven traits of pea plants, found a 3:1 ratio for the F 2 generation

17. Mendel’s methods Mendel controlled how the plants were pollinated  pollen grains from the anthers are transferred to the stigma Self-Pollination  occurs when pollen is transferred from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of either the same flower or a flower on the same plant Cross-Pollination  involves flowers of two separate Pea Plants normally reproduce through self-pollination, but Mendel would remove the anthers from a flower and manually transferrring pollen from particular flowers to another chosen plant In other words, he could pick and choose the traits of both males and female plants giving him more control over the experiment

18. Mendels experiments First he conducted experiments called true breeding  he bred purple with purple and got all offspring to be purple Then he began crossing those pure bred purple plants with pure bred white plants to see what ratio of purple to white he obtained over multiple generations (P, F1, F2) Finally he began to “mix” different combinations, and by doing this he noticed patterns to be discussed later

21. Mendel’s Conclusions Recessive and Dominant traits  the 3:1 ratio meant that the trait showing up in 75% of offspring must be the dominant trait, and the other 25% must be recessive The law of segregation  there are a pair of traits for every character, and that during gamete formation, the parental characters are separated and only one copy is received  In other words, only one allele is given from each parent, and that those two alleles give an organism their traits The law of independent assortment  traits are passed on independently of other traits from parent to offspring  In other words, the chances of getting either allele from each parent is random

22. Vocabulary Organisms have two genes for the same trait One from mother and one from father, this is called a homologous pair. Represented by letters (Bb) Recessive=little letter (b) Dominant=big letter (B) Individual can be BBorBborbb

23. Alleles: term for the letters. Can be used interchangeably with the term gene. Organisms have a pair of alleles for each trait – Ex: BB or Bb or bb Homozygous: means both genes or alleles are the same  BB or bb Heterozygous: means both genes or alleles are different  Bb or bB

24. More vocabulary Genotype  term for the letter combination – Combination of alleles or genes Phenotype  physical traits-appearance Hybrid  same as heterozygous Gene linkage  genes come as a “package deal” – Ex: If your dad has 4 genes all on chromosome #4, dangling earlobes, tongue rolling, curly hair, and freckles. Therefore, you would inherit all 4 of his alleles for all 4 traits, and get none from your mom for those traits. – Opposite of independent assortment – Genes that are closer together tend to stay linked, and ones further apart tend to independently assort

25. Probability

26. Punnett Square

27. Chromosome Theory of Inheritance genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns, which closely parallels predicted Mendelian patterns.  Explains those things Mendel did not understand  Independent assortment  Segregation  Gene linkage  Crossing Over  Incomplete Dominance  Codominance

28. What Mendel didn’t know Polygenic inheritance Pleiotropy Incomplete dominance Multiple alleles Codominance Genes affected by the environment Epistasis

29. Polygenic Inheritance Polygenic Inheritance  when several genes affect the trait instead of a single gene as with Mendelian genetics – Ex: eye color, hair color, height, skin color, weight – Most traits are polygenic only one gene affects the trait is very rare in nature Pleiotropy  When one set of genes can effect multiple phenotypes Ex: Being bb means you have cystic fibrosis which effects multiple phenotypes

31. Polygenic inheritance examples

32. Incomplete Dominance In Mendelian genetics, one allele is completely dominant over the other, as with pea color In most cases, offspring has a phenotype that is the intermediate of the two parents – Ex: A female flower is red, and a male flower is blue. They mate, what color will all of their offspring be? – A red flower and a white flower make a _____________ flower. – In a problem, I would indicate this in some manner

34. Codominance A condition in which both alleles for the same gene are fully expressed, they are both dominant  no recessives Ex: Checkered chicken, roan cattle, many others In a problem, I would indicate this in some manner

35. Multiple Alleles In Mendelian genetics, there were always two alleles for every trait There are certain cases where this is not true, and there are three or more alleles – Best ex: blood type has three alleles: – Combinations in these different alleles produce four different blood types (ignoring the +, -)

36. Epistasis A gene at one location alters the expression of a gene at a second location  In mice and many other mammals, black coat color (B) is dominant to brown (b)  For a mice to have brown fur, it must be bb  However, a second gene determines if the brown will even show up  If C means you show up the color, but c means you don’t, then if the mice is cc and bb, the mice will not be brown, it will instead be albino

37. Jumping Genes Transposons  genes that are able to move to a location on the same chromosome or on a totally different chromosome This means that a character can appear in multiple locations and the variation of the traits for that character may both show up, in different locations  Maize

38. Environmental factors The environment can influence one’s phenotype as well For ex: two hydrangea flowers are supposed to be purple because they both possess bb for flower color  BUT the acidity of the soil can change “the shade of purple” the flowers will be Another ex: if you have both alleles for obesity, but you work extremely hard to keep weight off, then you stand a better chance of not becoming obese  People with obese gene are more likely to become obese, but it does not mean they always will

39. Monohybrid Cross All punnett squares with one trait and two possible phenotypes Basically all punnett squares we have done so far. Any punnett square with four squares

40. Patterns in punnet squares

41. Dihybrid Cross 16 squares You are crossing two traits at once For example: Two traits could be tall/short and green/yellow  In other words, a plant can be tall and green, tall and yellow, short and green, or short and yellow. FOIL method from algebra to do the outside of the punnett square.

42. Patterns in dihybrid crosses