1. 12 Soil and Agriculture CHAPTER

2. Possible Transgenic Maize in Oaxaca, Mexico In 2001, genetically modified (GM) transgenes were found in native Oaxacan maize. Anti-GM activists worry that transgene “contamination” will threaten the genetic diversity of the planet’s food supply. The GM industry defends its safety and proclaims that GM crops are necessary to meet growing food demand. In 2001, genetically modified (GM) transgenes were found in native Oaxacan maize. Anti-GM activists worry that transgene “contamination” will threaten the genetic diversity of the planet’s food supply. The GM industry defends its safety and proclaims that GM crops are necessary to meet growing food demand. Talk About It What are the costs and benefits of genetically modified food crops?

3. Lesson 12.1 Soil About 38% of Earth’s land surface is used for agriculture.

4. Soil Composition Soil is made up of minerals, organic matter, air, and water. Soil composition is influenced by climate, organisms, landforms, parent material, and time. Lesson 12.1 Soil

5. Soil Formation Weathering: Physical and chemical breaking of rocks and minerals into smaller pieces Erosion and deposition: Pick-up, transport, and drop-off of material from one place to another Decomposition: Breakdown of waste, organisms, and organic material into simple molecules Weathering: Physical and chemical breaking of rocks and minerals into smaller pieces Erosion and deposition: Pick-up, transport, and drop-off of material from one place to another Decomposition: Breakdown of waste, organisms, and organic material into simple molecules Lesson 12.1 Soil

6. Soil Horizons Soil horizons are distinct layers of soil. A cross-section of soil horizons is a soil profile. Soil horizons are distinct layers of soil. A cross-section of soil horizons is a soil profile. Did You Know? In general, organic matter is concentrated in the O and A horizons, making them the most critical for agriculture. Lesson 12.1 Soil

8. Soil Characteristics U.S. soil scientists define 12 major soil groups. Soil groups are further classified according to properties such as color, structure, pH, and texture. U.S. soil scientists define 12 major soil groups. Soil groups are further classified according to properties such as color, structure, pH, and texture. Lesson 12.1 Soil

11. Soil texture is based on particle size.

12. Lesson 12.2 Soil Degradation and Conservation Some estimates predict that 50 million people could be displaced in the next 10 years due to desertification, a form of soil degradation. A dust storm near Stratford, Texas, in 1935

13. Erosion Lesson 12.2 Soil Degradation and Conservation The process by which material, such as topsoil, is moved from one place to another. Caused by natural processes and human activities Natural: wind, rain, river flow Human caused: leaving soil bare after harvesting, overgrazing rangelands, and clearing forests on steep slopes or with large clear cuts Crops, trees, and other plant communities protect soil from erosion by slowing wind and water as well as holding soil in their place with their roots Did You Know? More than 19 billion hectares (47 billion acres) of the world’s croplands suffer from erosion and other forms of soil degradation resulting from human activities.

14. Farming Practices That Reduce Erosion Intercropping: Different crops mixed together Crop rotation: Crops are alternated. Shelterbelts: Tall plants block wind. Intercropping: Different crops mixed together Crop rotation: Crops are alternated. Shelterbelts: Tall plants block wind. Lesson 12.2 Soil Degradation and Conservation

15. Farming Practices That Reduce Erosion Conservation tillage: Soil turnover is reduced. Terracing: Steep slopes turned into “steps” Contour farming: Planting perpendicular to hill’s slope Conservation tillage: Soil turnover is reduced. Terracing: Steep slopes turned into “steps” Contour farming: Planting perpendicular to hill’s slope

16. Ranching Practices Ranching is the raising and grazing of livestock. Overgrazing causes and worsens many soil problems. Range managers encourage grazing limits and enforce them on publicly owned land. Ranching is the raising and grazing of livestock. Overgrazing causes and worsens many soil problems. Range managers encourage grazing limits and enforce them on publicly owned land. Lesson 12.2 Soil Degradation and Conservation

17. Forestry Practices Lesson 12.2 Soil Degradation and Conservation Forestry practices, such as clear-cutting, can increase erosion. Today, practices that reduce soil erosion, such as selective logging, are increasingly common. Forestry practices, such as clear-cutting, can increase erosion. Today, practices that reduce soil erosion, such as selective logging, are increasingly common.

18. Desertification Lesson 12.2 Soil Degradation and Conservation Loss of more than 10% of soil productivity Causes: soil compaction, erosion, overgrazing, drought, or other factors Effects: endangers food supply, erosion (dust storms), forces farmers to plant in poor soil and crowd animals onto less productive land Arid and semi-arid lands are most prone. Affects large amounts of Earth’s land areas—up to one third, according to one estimate Loss of more than 10% of soil productivity Causes: soil compaction, erosion, overgrazing, drought, or other factors Effects: endangers food supply, erosion (dust storms), forces farmers to plant in poor soil and crowd animals onto less productive land Arid and semi-arid lands are most prone. Affects large amounts of Earth’s land areas—up to one third, according to one estimate Area affected by the Dust Bowl

19. Dust Bowl The Dust Bowl was a major desertification event in the 1930s.

20. Soil Conservation Efforts Lesson 12.2 Soil Degradation and Conservation U.S. Soil Conservation Act (1935): Established the Soil Conservation Service, today called the Natural Resources Conservation Service Farmer-Centered Agricultural Resource Management Program (FARM): A United Nations effort that focuses on resource challenges in developing nations U.S. Soil Conservation Act (1935): Established the Soil Conservation Service, today called the Natural Resources Conservation Service Farmer-Centered Agricultural Resource Management Program (FARM): A United Nations effort that focuses on resource challenges in developing nations

21. Soil Pollution Lesson 12.2 Soil Degradation and Conservation Too much, or carelessly timed irrigation can waterlog crops and lead to salinization—a buildup of salts in upper soil horizons. Did You Know? Salinization costs farmers $11 billion in crop income a year worldwide.

22. Soil Pollution Toxic pesticides can remain in soil for a long time, eventually filtering to groundwater. Pesticides (all…typically insects) vs. Herbicides (weeds) vs. Fungicides (fungus) Can biomagnify in the food chain (DDT) May kill nontarget species (lower biodiversity or kill natural biological pest control) Toxic pesticides can remain in soil for a long time, eventually filtering to groundwater. Pesticides (all…typically insects) vs. Herbicides (weeds) vs. Fungicides (fungus) Can biomagnify in the food chain (DDT) May kill nontarget species (lower biodiversity or kill natural biological pest control)

23. Lesson 12.3 Agriculture Humans have been practicing agriculture for about 10,000 years.

24. The Beginnings of Agriculture People were hunter-gatherers through most of human history, until agriculture developed about 10,000 years ago. Lesson 12.3 Agriculture

25. Selective Breeding and Settlement In early agriculture, people began planting seeds from plants they liked most, a form of selective breeding. Crop cultivation enabled people to settle permanently, often near water sources, and raise livestock. Agriculture and livestock provided a stable food supply, which allowed the development of modern civilization. In early agriculture, people began planting seeds from plants they liked most, a form of selective breeding. Crop cultivation enabled people to settle permanently, often near water sources, and raise livestock. Agriculture and livestock provided a stable food supply, which allowed the development of modern civilization. Lesson 12.3 Agriculture

26. Traditional Agriculture Agriculture “powered” by people and animals Does not require fossil fuels Practiced widely until the Industrial Revolution Agriculture “powered” by people and animals Does not require fossil fuels Practiced widely until the Industrial Revolution Lesson 12.3 Agriculture

27. Industrial Agriculture Agriculture that requires the use of fossil fuels Involves mechanized farming technology, manufactured chemicals, and large- scale irrigation To be efficient, large areas are planted with a single crop in a monoculture. Video Clip: Cornicopia of Choices Agriculture that requires the use of fossil fuels Involves mechanized farming technology, manufactured chemicals, and large- scale irrigation To be efficient, large areas are planted with a single crop in a monoculture. Video Clip: Cornicopia of Choices Lesson 12.3 Agriculture Did You Know? Today, more than 25% of the world’s croplands support industrial agriculture.

28. The Green Revolution Introduced new technology, crop varieties, and farming practices to the developing world in the mid- to late 1900s Benefits: Increased crop yields and saved millions of people from starvation in India and Pakistan Prevented some deforestation and habitat loss by increasing yields on cultivated land Costs: Led to a 7000% increase in energy used by agriculture Worsened erosion, salinization, desertification, eutrophication, and pollution Introduced new technology, crop varieties, and farming practices to the developing world in the mid- to late 1900s Benefits: Increased crop yields and saved millions of people from starvation in India and Pakistan Prevented some deforestation and habitat loss by increasing yields on cultivated land Costs: Led to a 7000% increase in energy used by agriculture Worsened erosion, salinization, desertification, eutrophication, and pollution Lesson 12.3 Agriculture

29. Chemical pesticides: Effective and cheap, but can lead to resistance Biological pest control: Permanent solution, but can harm nontarget organisms Integrated pest management: Increasingly popular solution, combines chemical and biological pest-control methods Chemical pesticides: Effective and cheap, but can lead to resistance Biological pest control: Permanent solution, but can harm nontarget organisms Integrated pest management: Increasingly popular solution, combines chemical and biological pest-control methods Pests and Weed Control Lesson 12.3 Agriculture Cactus moth larvae are used to control prickly pear cactus, but also threaten many rare, native cacti around the world.

30. Pollinators Pollination is the process by which plants reproduce sexually. Agriculture relies on pollinators, such as insects. Native and domesticated pollinator populations have declined due to pesticide use, parasites, and other as-of-yet unknown causes. Pollination is the process by which plants reproduce sexually. Agriculture relies on pollinators, such as insects. Native and domesticated pollinator populations have declined due to pesticide use, parasites, and other as-of-yet unknown causes. Lesson 12.3 Agriculture Did You Know? Bees and other insects pollinate 800 species of cultivated plants.

31. Lesson 12.4 Food Production Each year, Earth gains 75 million people and loses 5–7 million hectares of productive cropland.

32. Food Security Since 1960, our ability to produce food has grown faster than the human population, but 1 billion people are hungry worldwide. Malnutrition and undernourishment are most common in the developing world. Agriculture scientists and policymakers are working toward food security—the guarantee of an adequate food supply for all people at all times. Since 1960, our ability to produce food has grown faster than the human population, but 1 billion people are hungry worldwide. Malnutrition and undernourishment are most common in the developing world. Agriculture scientists and policymakers are working toward food security—the guarantee of an adequate food supply for all people at all times. Lesson 12.4 Food Production

33. Genetically Modified Organisms Organisms that have had their DNA modified through recombinant DNA technology Commonly engineered traits include rapid growth, pest resistance, and frost tolerance. In the United States, 85% of corn and 90% of soybean, cotton, and canola crops (rape plants) come from GM strains. Examples: Bt Corn, Round-up Ready Soybeans Organisms that have had their DNA modified through recombinant DNA technology Commonly engineered traits include rapid growth, pest resistance, and frost tolerance. In the United States, 85% of corn and 90% of soybean, cotton, and canola crops (rape plants) come from GM strains. Examples: Bt Corn, Round-up Ready Soybeans Lesson 12.4 Food Production Film clip: From Seed to Supermarket http://www.bionetonline.org/english/content/ff_cont3.htm

34. Risks and Benefits of GM Crops Risks: Potential for “superpests” that are resistant to pest-resistant crops Contamination of non-GM plants (lowering biodiversity) Risks: Potential for “superpests” that are resistant to pest-resistant crops Contamination of non-GM plants (lowering biodiversity) Lesson 12.4 Food Production Benefits: Insect-resistant crops like Bt-corn reduces the need for insecticides. Herbicide-resistant crops like Round-Up Ready Soybean encourages tillage conservation.

35. Industrial Food Production: Feedlots Alternative to open grazing in which energy-rich food is delivered to a concentrated group of livestock or poultry Benefits: Reduces soil degradation and fertilizer use Costs: Requires antibiotic use; potential for water contamination and animal stress; Evolution of E.coli 157H7 Alternative to open grazing in which energy-rich food is delivered to a concentrated group of livestock or poultry Benefits: Reduces soil degradation and fertilizer use Costs: Requires antibiotic use; potential for water contamination and animal stress; Evolution of E.coli 157H7 Lesson 12.4 Food Production Film Clip: Fast Food To All Food

36. Industrial Food Production: Aquaculture Fish farming in a controlled environment Benefits: Can be sustainable; reduces by-catch; reduces fossil fuel use Costs: More difficult to control spread of diseases; produces a lot of waste; potential for farm-raised animals to escape into wild Lesson 12.4 Food Production Did You Know? Aquaculture is the fastest-growing type of food production.

37. Seed Banks Industrial Agriculture relies on Monoculture Lowers biodiversity Risk of a catastrophe wiping out an entire crop Risk of GM-genes forcing wild varieties into extinction Seed Banks preserve seeds of diverse plants as a kind of insurance policy against a global crop collapse Industrial Agriculture relies on Monoculture Lowers biodiversity Risk of a catastrophe wiping out an entire crop Risk of GM-genes forcing wild varieties into extinction Seed Banks preserve seeds of diverse plants as a kind of insurance policy against a global crop collapse

38. Energy Efficiency

40. Sustainable Agriculture Did You Know? Organic food purchases increased 200% from 1999 to 2008. Does not deplete soil faster than it forms Does not reduce the amount or quality of soil, water, and genetic diversity essential to long-term crop and livestock production Organic agriculture is sustainable agriculture that does not use synthetic chemicals. Local, small-scale agriculture reduces the use of fossil fuels and chemicals used for transportation and storage. Does not deplete soil faster than it forms Does not reduce the amount or quality of soil, water, and genetic diversity essential to long-term crop and livestock production Organic agriculture is sustainable agriculture that does not use synthetic chemicals. Local, small-scale agriculture reduces the use of fossil fuels and chemicals used for transportation and storage. Lesson 12.4 Food Production