1. Concepts & Diagnosis Paper 2 Question (Major)

2. Sources of info… Use your textbook……… Use the wiki………. Use the summary sheets….. Use the handouts………..

3. Command terms… See your textbook pages 385-387 for some good information on planning for an LAQ

4. General Essay Structure….. Introduction Explain how you will answer the question Identify what theories/studies you will explain – Provide a clear thesis statement (an answer to the question). Define relevant terms if necessary Body Paragraphs Use arguments supported by specific evidence. Start each paragraph with a topic sentence which identifies your main idea or argument. Select at least three pieces of specific evidence to support your argument. REMEMBER TO EVALUATE! Conclusion Summarize main arguments Make a clear statement about the question with a reason.

5. Notice how 9 marks(41%) are for critical thinking (evaluation!) Rubric…

6. You will answer one these in 1 hour…. 1) “There are controversies surrounding the concept of abnormality.” With reference to this statement, discuss the concepts of normality and abnormality. 2) Making reference to relevant research, examine the reliability and validity of diagnosis. 3) Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis.

7. 1) “There are controversies surrounding the concept of abnormality.” With reference to this statement, discuss the concepts of normality and abnormality. Introduction 1) Explain how you will answer the question: – There are many controversies present when defining abnormality primarily because there is a lot of debate about what can be defined as ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’. Making a correct diagnosis is extremely important because this dictates the treatment people receive. In order to do this a clear definition of abnormality is needed. However, definitions of abnormality are varied and subjective. 2) Identify what theories/studies you will use in your answer: – This paper will uncover the controversies surrounding the the concepts of abnormality by evaluating the Statistical Infrequency, Deviation from Social Norms, Failure to function adequately, Deviation from Ideal Mental Health and Mental Illness models of ‘normality’ and ‘abnormality’. The paper will also discuss how ethical and cultural issues also create controversy in this area. 3)Provide a clear thesis statement (an answer to the question): – “The central thesis to this paper is that the controversy arises because there is no clear definition of abnormality and this in turn makes diagnosing mental disorders very difficult, and cultural and ethical issues also play a large role in this controversy.” ESSAY PLAN QUESTION 1

8. Body Paragraphs 1 st to 3 rd Body Paragraphs: Structure these around an evaluation of the different models of abnormality Breifly Explain how each model works as a definition of abnormality and then MAKE SURE YOU MAKE MANY EVALUATIVE POINTS ABOUT THE MODELS – be sure to connect this back to the question– e.g. “There are a number of controversies surrounding this model, as it has been criticized for being..….” and then conclude “even though there are limitations to this model it is beneficial in our understanding of normality and abnormality because….” Do this for at least 3 of these: STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY – then evaluation DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS – then evaluation FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATLY – then evaluation DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH – then evaluation THE MENTAL ILLNESS MODEL – then evaluation 1) “There are controversies surrounding the concept of abnormality.” With reference to this statement, discuss the concepts of normality and abnormality. ESSAY PLAN QUESTION 1

9. Body Paragraphs 4 th & 5 th Body Paragraphs Discuss the issues relating to ethics and culture, explain how these influence the definition of abnormality, and create debate and controversy when it comes to diagnosis. MAKE SURE YOU CONNECT IT BACK TO THE CONTROVERSY SURROUNDING DEFINITIONS OF NORMALITY AND ABNORMALITY. Do this for at least 1 of these from ethics and 1 from Culture Ethical Issues: Labeling & Stigma – this issue arises from defining abnormality The Self Fulfilling Prophecy, Prejudice & Discrimination – defining behavior as abnormal has serious ethical consequences Confirmation bias – this is a danger when defining abnormality Powerlessness and depersonalization & Ethics & Culture: Racial/ethnic Bias – peoples definition of what is normal varies between cultures Cultural Issues: Culture Relativism & Culture Bound Syndromes – this also shows how it is impossible to have a universal definition of abnormality Cultural Change – definitions change with time Differences in Help Seeking/Different Symptoms - what is abnormal in one culture may be defined as normal in another Conclusion Summarize main arguments: e.g. “It is clear from discussing the research into models for defining ‘normality’ and ‘abnormality’ and the ethical and cultural issues surrounding this topic that make it difficult to define and diagnose mental disorders.” 1) “There are controversies surrounding the concept of abnormality.” With reference to this statement, discuss the concepts of normality and abnormality. ESSAY PLAN QUESTION 1

10. 2) Making reference to relevant research, examine the reliability and validity of diagnosis. Introduction 1) Explain how you will answer the question & identify what theories/studies you will use in your answer: This paper will examine the reliability and validity of diagnosis by focusing the diagnostic classification systems of the DSM-IV (1994)and the ICD-10 (1992). This paper will evaluate these and also examine research by Rosenhan (1973) and a number of other studies of diagnosis. Cultural issues will also be considered, as well as methods to increase the reliability and validity of diagnosis. 2) Define relevant terms: Reliability: this is high when different psychiatrists agree on a patient’s diagnosis when using the same diagnostic system. This is also known as inter-rater reliability. Validity: this is the extent to which the diagnosis is accurate. This is much more difficult to assess in mental disorders, for example because some symptoms may appear in different disorders. 3)Provide a clear thesis statement The central thesis to this paper is that the research demonstrates are significant concerns in terms of the reliability and validity of the diagnosis of mental disorders. ESSAY PLAN QUESTION 2

11. Body Paragraphs 1 st Body Paragraph – Outline of diagnosis procedure When an individual seeks help for a potential mental disorder, how do psychiatrists go about making a diagnosis? While a doctor looks for signs of disease using X-rays, scanners, or blood tests, as well as observable symptoms, the psychiatrist will often have to rely primarily on the patient’s subjective description of the problem. Diagnosis is accomplished through a formal standardized clinical interview—a checklist of questions to ask each patient. After the interview, a mental health status examination is completed, based on the clinician’s evaluation of the patient’s responses. Today the clinician—often a psychiatrist—uses a standardized diagnostic system. 2 nd Body Paragraph (this could be several paragraphs if needed) THE DSM-IV (1994) : VERY briefly explain how this system works & make it clear that it is limited in its validity and reliability. (e.g. cultural issues) -Introduce the Rosenhan (1973) study. Connect this to issues surrounding validity & reliability – it has high inter-rater reliability – low validity – changes made to the DSM because of this study. THE ICD-10 (1992): VERY briefly explain how this works & make it clear that it is also limited -Use the Research done in Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital as an example – They came up with their own diagnostic criteria and it was much more reliable. -You should also bring in Beck et al. (1962) Cooper et al. (1972) Di Nardo et al. (1993) and Lipton and Simon (1985) to highlight the issues of validity and reliability. MAKE SURE YOU CONNECT WHAT YOU WRITE BACK TO THE QUESTION 2) Making reference to relevant research, examine the reliability and validity of diagnosis. ESSAY PLAN QUESTION 2

12. Body Paragraphs 3 rd Body Paragraph (this could be several paragraphs if needed) Examine the four Key Issues in Diagnosis: -Are the categories of mental disorders real and meaningful? -When description become diagnosis -Over inclusion and ‘patholologizing’ problems Connect these back to the concepts of validity and reliability – these points are relevant for both the ICD and DSM. 4 th Body Paragraph (this could be several paragraphs if needed) You can bring in the A method to improve reliability and validity: The Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) (Andrews & Peters, 1997) before discussing Cultural Issues such as : -Culture Relativism & Culture Bound Syndromes -Subcultures, Cultural Change, Differences in Help Seeking -Reporting Bias & Social Stigma *These can all be discussed as they also influence the validity and reliability of diagnosis* Conclusion Summarize main arguments: e.g. “The issues concerning the reliability and validity of diagnosis are great, and only with a well developed understanding of these will we be able to truly advance knowledge of the etiologies (causes) and treatments of mental disorders.” 2) Making reference to relevant research, examine the reliability and validity of diagnosis. ESSAY PLAN QUESTION 2

13. 3) Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis. Introduction 1) Explain how you will answer the question & identify what theories/studies you will use in your answer: -This paper will first discuss these by focusing on research on the ethical considerations of: (write about at least four of these) Labeling & Stigma The Self Fulfilling Prophecy Prejudice & Discrimination Confirmation bias Powerlessness and depersonalization Racial/ethnic Bias. -The paper will then discuss the cultural considerations issues of : (Write about at least four of these) Cultural Relativism Culture Bound Syndromes Subcultures Cultural Change Differences in Help Seeking Reporting Bias & Social Stigma Different Symptoms & Cultural Blindness. before concluding by discussing : How can psychologists/psychiatrists avoid cultural bias influencing a diagnosis, and how they can reduce ethical issues in diagnosis. ESSAY PLAN QUESTION 3

14. 3) Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis. Introduction 2) Define relevant terms: Culture: Herskovits (1948) who proposed that culture is the human-made part of the environment. Diagnosis: is the process of identifying a medical condition or disease by its signs (what the physician sees), symptoms (what the patient says), and from the results of various diagnostic procedures (Cardwell, 2006). While a doctor looks for signs of disease using X-rays, scanners, or blood tests, as well as observable symptoms, the psychiatrist will often have to rely primarily on the patient’s subjective description of the problem. Ethics: is the study of morality (Alchin, 2005) 3)Provide a clear thesis statement The central thesis to this paper is that there are number of important ethical and cultural considerations involved in diagnosis, and these greatly influence the accuracy of diagnosis. ESSAY PLAN QUESTION 3

15. Body Paragraphs 1 st Body Paragraph (this could be several paragraphs if needed) – make sure you get the details in and relate all the info back to the question Labeling & Stigma –Rosenhan (1973) can be brought in here also The Self Fulfilling Prophecy Prejudice & Discrimination Confirmation bias Powerlessness and depersonalization Racial/ethnic Bias. 2 nd Body Paragraph (this could be several paragraphs if needed) – make sure you get the details in and relate all the info back to the question Cultural Relativism Culture Bound Syndromes Subcultures Cultural Change Differences in Help Seeking Reporting Bias & Social Stigma Different Symptoms & Cultural Blindness. Conclusion Summarize main arguments: E.g. “In summary, it is clear that there are pertinent cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis, and it is vital for clinicians to be aware of these when considering the diagnostic process and how it can be improved. Research should continue in this area to ensure that these considerations are taken into account.” 3) Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis. ESSAY PLAN QUESTION 3