1. English Critical Realism

2.  S ocial Background (P146-151)  S ince the Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century, the class structure in English society had undergone radical changes. The industrial capitalists began to play a more important role and vied for political power with the old aristocracy.  E ngland became a typical capitalist country. Having consolidated its positions at home, the British bourgeoisie strengthened its policy of colonial expansion in all parts of the world, successively competing for markets with other powerful countries.

3.  In 1834 there was the passage of the Poor Law. The inhuman work-house were established, in which the poor people had to do heavy tasks and live no better than jails. The great misery of the workers led to an upsurge of labor movements and the organization of the workers into unions. In 1836 arose the working-class movements known as Chartism. During the forties, the revolutionary events on the European continent led to a new strengthening of the English working-class movement. But the late forties witnessed the decline of Chartism owing to the defeat of the revolutions on the Continent and the easing of social tension in England.

4.  The crying social contradictions were reflected in the poetry and prose of the time. In 1844, Thomas Hood (1799-1845) wrote the poem “ The Song of the Shirt” which, through the mouth of a poor seamstress, voiced the great misery of the women-workers. And many other poems showed the deep sympathy for the workers and their protest against the exploitation of man by man, though the poets still cherished the illusion that the enlightened members of the ruling classes might do something to alleviate the sufferings of the poor and down-trodden.

5.  E nglish Critical Realism  I n this period of tense class struggle appeared a new literary trend-critical realism. English critical realism of the 19th century flourished in the forties and in the early fifties. The critical realists described with much vividness and great artistic skill the chief traits of the English society and criticized the capitalist system from a democratic viewpoint.  T he greatest English realist of the time was Charles Dickens. With striking force and truthfulness, he creates pictures of bourgeois civilization, describing the misery and sufferings of the common people. Another critical realist,

6. William Makepeace Thackeray, was a no less severe exposer of contemporary society. Thackeray’s novels are mainly a satirical portrayal of the upper strata of society. The method of critical realism were further adopted by such writers as Charlotte and Emily Bronte, and Elizabeth Gaskell. In the fifties and sixties the realistic novel entered a stage of decline.

7.  The English critical realists of the 19th century not only gave a satirical portrayal of the bourgeoisie and all the ruling classes, but also showed profound sympathy for the common people. In their best works, the greed and hypocrisy of the upper classes are contrasted with the honesty and good-heartedness of the obscure “ simple people” of the lower classes. Hence the use of humor and satire in the English realistic novels of the 19th century. Humorous scenes may attend the actions of the positive characters, but this humor is tinged with lyricism and serves to stress and grotesque is used to expose the seamy side of

8. seamy side of the bourgeois society. Through the sketches of various negative characters given birth to by the capitalist system, critical realism reveals the corrupting influence of the rule of cash upon human nature. Here lies the root of the democratic and humanistic character of the critical realism of the 19th century. But the critical realists did not find a way to eradicate social evils. They did not realize the necessity of the changing the bourgeois society. They were unable to find a good solution to the social contradictions.

9.  So far as the literary form or “genre” is concerned, the major contribution made by the 19th century critical realists lies in their perfection of the novel. Like the realists of the 18th century, the 19th century critical realists made use of the broad canvas of the novel for full and detailed representations of social and political events, and of the fate of individuals and of whole social classes.

10. Charles Dickens (1812-1870)

11.  D ickens’s Life (P156-160)  b orn in 1812 at Portsmouth, where his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office.  I n 1821, Dickens’s family moved to a poor quarter in London, while his father was sent to prison for debt. Later, Mrs. Dickens and the younger children went to the prison, too, to join the father.  T he 12-year-old Charles was sent to work in an underground cellar at a blacking factory in the East End of London. This was the unhappiest time of his life.

12.  Years later, he wrote about his early days in these workhouse: “ I never said, to man or boy, how it was I came to be there, or gave the least indication of being sorry that I was there. That I suffered in secret, and that I suffered exquisitely, no one ever knew but I.  At 15, Charles left school for good and became a lawyer’s clerk, where he gained a first-hand knowledge of the parliamentary government under capitalism and he never wavered in his understanding of it as an instrument for wielding and disguising the power of the upper classes.

13.  In 1834, Charles was taken on the staff of a newspaper and went all over the country getting news, writing stories, meeting people and learning about life in general.  Dickens wrote a number of little sketches of “ cockney characters”. He signed them “ Boz”, the nickname for his young brother. His first book, “ Sketches by Boz”, appeared in 1836. later, he was invited to write a long story for a magazine, so he expanded it into a long novel, and “ Pickwck Papers” came into being. It tells of the adventures of Mr. Pickwick and his club.

14.  At first, sales were small. The turning point came with the fifth number, in which Sam Weller the waiter appears. The circulation shot up, and before it was ended “Pickwick Papers” was selling 40,000 copies. Dickens had become the most popular living novelist of his day. He was twenty-four at the time.  The rest of his life is a story of work, and work without rest. From 1838 to 1841 appeared “ Oliver Twist”, “Nicholas Nickleby”, “ The Old Curiosity Shop” and “ Barnaby Rudge”. These were Dickens’s early works.

15.  In 1842, Dickens made to a trip to America and his unfavorable impressions of the life in U.S. A were reflected “ American Notes” and “ Martin Chuzzlewit”.  Since 1844 he had spent much time on the European continent. The great social movements in the middle of the 19th century inspired Dickens’s famous novels of social criticism, “ Dombey and Son”, “ David Copperfield”, “Bleak House”, “ Hard Times” and “ Little Dorrit”.  In 1859, he published his historical novel of the French Revolution, “ A Tale of Two Cities”, which was followed

16. By more novels on contemporary themes, “ Great Expectations” and “ Our Mutual Friends”.  In 1867-1868 Dickens made his second trip to America. Back in England, he started “ Edwin Drood”, his last work, but it remained unfinished owing to the writer’s sudden death in 1870.

17.  C C harles’s Literary Career and Major Works  T T he First Period (183-1841) At this stage, Charles believed that all the evils of the capitalist world would be remedied if only men behaved to each other with kindliness, justice, and sympathetic understanding. Dickens thought that the whole social question would be settled if only every employer reformed himself according to the model set by the benevolent gentlemen in his novels. This naïve optimism is characteristic of the petty-bourgeois humanitarians of his time.

18. Oliver Twist, written in 1837-38, tells the story of an orphan boy, whose adventures provide a description of the lower depths of London. (The plot is on Page 173-178) In the preface to the novel, Dickens proclaims himself a realist, and he does appear as such in “ Oliver Twist”. He makes his readers aware of the inhumanity of city life under capitalism. The first eleven chapters provide a most bitter and thoroughgoing exposure of the terrible conditions in the English workhouse of the time and the cruel treatment of a poor orphan by all sorts of philanthropists.

19. In the vivid description of the thieves’ den and of the underworld of London, the author succeeds in calling forth the reader’s sympathy for the down-trodden people of the lower classes, who, degraded and corrupted by the social environment of the time, either climb up to be parasites or oppressors or fall to be victims of society or even criminals. Among the characters of the lower strata, Oliver is the only one who emerges happy and successful in the end. This happy issue which Dickens’ novels usually end in comes about as a result of his optimistic belief in the inevitable triumph of good over evil.

20. The chief defects of the novel include the improbability of the plot and the unconvincingness of some characters. Toward the end of the novel, the plot gets to be very intricate and the reader is simply mystified, and when the mystery is finally revealed to him, he is faced with impossible coincidences which lead to the happy ending. In spite of the defects, the novel is a powerful exposure of bourgeois society. It is said that the publication of “ Oliver Twist” brought about bettering of conditions in the English workhouses during the author’s day.

21.  The Second Period (1842-1850) Dickens’ second period began from 1842, the year after his first visit to America. Before the visit, Dickens thought of the United States as a world in which there were no class divisions and the relations between men were humanitarian. He noticed during his visit the free and easy friendliness of the common people, the American hospitality, the unaffected care for strangers, the various state laws regulating child labor, free, public education, and the cleanliness and order of some public institutions. But what impressed him most there was the rule of dollars

22. And the enormously corrupting influence of wealth and power. Vulgar selfishness prevailed everywhere and concealed the fine qualities of the people. Dickens’ naïve optimism about capitalist society was thus profoundly shaken. In Dombey and Son, Dickens made more open and ruthless attacks on the vices of the bourgeoisie than he had done in his earlier works. His social criticism became deeper and more powerful. The hero in “ Dombey and Son” is a capitalist, a true representative of the English bourgeoisie--- the rich and proud head of the shipping house of Dombey and son.

23. The pride of the upper strata of the British bourgeoisie in the mid-19th century, who considered themselves to be on the top of the world, is vividly told here. Dickens saw that the expansion of capitalism, instead of bringing benevolence and equality to human society, produced a handful of magnates of trade and industry, who wielded a power as great as that of Roman emperors, and who, in their pride of wealth, exacted from all people around them an undisputed obedience. This pride of wealth, or “purse- pride”, is the theme of the novel.

24. David Copperfield: This novel was published in 1849-50. “ of all my books, wrote Dickens, “ I like this the best”. The story is told in the first person, through the mouth of its hero, David Copperfield. David copperfield tells the story of his youth. As a young boy, he lives happily with his mother and his nurse, Peggotty. His father died before he was born. During David’s early childhood, his mother marries the violent Mr. Murdstone, who brings his strict sister, Miss Murdstone, into the house. The Murdstones treat David

25. cruelly, and David bites Mr. Murdstone’s hand during one beating. The Murdstones send David away to school. Peggotty takes David to visit her family in Yarmouth, where David meets Peggotty’s brother, Mr. Peggotty, and his two adopted children, Ham and Little Emily. Mr. Peggotty’s family lives in a boat turned upside down—a space they share with Mrs. Gummidge, the widowed wife of Mr. Peggotty’s brother. After this visit, David attends school at Salem House, which is run by a man named Mr. Creakle. David befriends and idolizes an egotistical young man named James Steerforth. David also befriends Tommy Traddles, an unfortunate, fat young boy who is beaten more

26. than the others. David’s mother dies, and David returns home, where the Murdstones neglect him. He works at Mr. Murdstone’s wine-bottling business and moves in with Mr. Micawber, who mismanages his finances. When Mr. Micawber leaves London to escape his creditors, David decides to search for his father’s sister, Miss Betsey Trotwood—his only living relative. He walks a long distance to Miss Betsey’s home, and she takes him in on the advice of her mentally unstable friend, Mr. Dick.

27. Miss Betsey sends David to a school run by a man named Doctor Strong. David moves in with Mr. Wickfield and his daughter, Agnes, while he attends school. Agnes and David become best friends. Among Wickfield’s boarders is Uriah Heep, a snakelike young man who often involves himself in matters that are none of his business. David graduates and goes to Yarmouth to visit Peggotty, who is now married to Mr. Barkis, the carrier. David reflects on what profession he should pursue. On his way to Yarmouth, David encounters James Steerforth, and they take a detour to visit Steerforth’s

28. mother. They arrive in Yarmouth, where Steerforth and the Peggottys become fond of one another. When they return from Yarmouth, Miss Betsey persuades David to pursue a career as a proctor, a kind of lawyer. David apprentices himself at the London firm of Spenlow and Jorkins and takes up lodgings with a woman named Mrs. Crupp. Mr. Spenlow invites David to his house for a weekend. There, David meets Spenlow’s daughter, Dora, and quickly falls in love with her. In London, David is reunited with Tommy Traddles and Mr. Micawber. Word reaches David, through Steerforth,

29. that Mr. Barkis is terminally ill. David journeys to Yarmouth to visit Peggotty in her hour of need. Little Em’ly and Ham, now engaged, are to be married upon Mr. Barkis’s death. David, however, finds Little Em’ly upset over her impending marriage. When Mr. Barkis dies, Little Em’ly runs off with Steerforth, who she believes will make her a lady. Mr. Peggotty is devastated but vows to find Little Em’ly and bring her home. Miss Betsey visits London to inform David that her financial security has been ruined because Mr. Wickfield has joined into a partnership with Uriah Heep. David, who

30. has become increasingly infatuated with Dora, vows to work as hard as he can to make their life together possible. Mr. Spenlow, however, forbids Dora from marrying David. Mr. Spenlow dies in a carriage accident that night, and Dora goes to live with her two aunts. Meanwhile, Uriah Heep informs Doctor Strong that he suspects Doctor Strong’s wife, Annie, of having an affair with her young cousin, Jack Maldon. Dora and David marry, and Dora proves a terrible housewife, incompetent in her chores. David loves her anyway and is generally happy. Mr. Dick facilitates a

31. reconciliation between Doctor Strong and Annie, who was not, in fact, cheating on her husband. Miss Dartle, Mrs. Steerforth’s ward, summons David and informs him that Steerforth has left Little Em’ly. Miss Dartle adds that Steerforth’s servant, Littimer, has proposed to her and that Little Em’ly has run away. David and Mr. Peggotty enlist the help of Little Em’ly’s childhood friend Martha, who locates Little Em’ly and brings Mr. Peggotty to her. Little Em’ly and Mr. Peggotty decide to move to Australia, as do the Micawbers, who first save the day for Agnes and Miss

32. Betsey by exposing Uriah Heep’s fraud against Mr. Wickfield. A powerful storm hits Yarmouth and kills Ham while he attempts to rescue a shipwrecked sailor. The sailor turns out to be Steerforth. Meanwhile, Dora falls ill and dies. David leaves the country to travel abroad. His love for Agnes grows. When David returns, he and Agnes, who has long harbored a secret love for him, get married and have several children. David pursues his writing career with increasing commercial success.

33.  T he Third Period (1851-1870) The last period of Dickens’s literary career began with the publication of “ Bleak House” in 1852-1853. His novels of this period are much darker in content than their predecessors. Up to this time, Dickens maintained some hope of reform under capitalism but beginning from “ Bleak House” there was an “ underlying tone of bitterness” which showed the novelist’s loss of hope for English bourgeois society.

34. Bleak House: The main butt of satire is aimed at the abuses of the English courts. The plot is built around the lawsuit of Jarndyce and Jarndyce over the inheritance of a family fortune, which has dragged on for many generations, setting relatives quarreling with one another, driving some of them to ruin and others to suicide, while the lawyers engaged in it obtain large fees from the case. In the end it turns out that the law costs have swallowed up the entire estate, so that there is no more need nor possibility for the both sides of disputants to go on with the case.

35. Hard Times The scene of “Hard Times” is laid in the North of England, in an industrial city called Coketown, about 1853. The main plot turns on the complete failure of the perfect system of education and of ethics carried into effect by two capitalists, Thomas Gradgrind and his friend Josiah Bounderby both followers of the utilitarian Manchester school. In the novel, Dickens also describes the Chartist movement with great artistic power. In his presentation of it he tries to prove that it is just and proper for the workers to ask for better conditions and that the struggle of the

36. workers is the simple result of their aspirations to win their human rights. Dickens shows a genuine sympahty for the workers. A Tale of Two Cities: In this novel, Dickens takes the French Revolution as the subject, and two cities are Paris and London in the time of that revolution. In the basic plot, the fate of Dr. Manette is closely interwoven with the development of the French Revolution. The theme underlying the novel is the idea “ where there is oppression, there is revolution.” Had there been no Bastille, and no privileged and lawless aristocrats,

37. there would have been no French Revolution, and likewise no story of Dr. Manette. The novel ranks as villains the feudal aristocrats and their lackeys, and exalts as heroes the oppressed and sufferings of peasants, the industrious professional man, and the faithful and honest people everywhere. Dickens has taken care to show that the people’s lust for vengeance is but the direct product of the ruling classes’ monstrous atrocities, so it merely adds an extra count to the indictment against the aristocracy that their rule should convert simple, honest people into avenging furies. “ A Tale of Two Cities” takes

38. The side of the common people against that of the privileged classes. But it adds, more plainly than any of his other novels, a warning of an Avenging Fate, from fear of which all the privileged, and all oppressors of the people, would do well to reconsider their ways.

39.  D ickens’ Contribution As a novelist, Dickens is remembered first of all for his character-portrayal. Every character his creative finger touched came alive. He often gives his characters certain peculiarities in appearance, in manner of speaking or in action of habit, by the use of exaggeration, and it is these peculiarities that make them more lively than life itself. Satire is frequently employed by Dickens to achieve the effect of irony. He is powerful in painting pictures of pathos if need be. In construction, the main plot is often

40. interwoven with more than one sub-plot so that some interesting minor characters as well as a broader view of life may be introduced. There is an abundant variety in Dickens’s invention of character and situation. Dickens has often been compared to Shakespeare for creative force and range of invention. “ He and Shakespeare are the two unique popular classics that England has given to the world, and they are alike in being remembered not for one masterpiece but for a creative world.”