1. MODERN RADAR

2. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

3. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

4. BASICS OF RADAR
RADAR SENDS OUT A
SERIES OF PULSES OF
ENERGY

5. BASICS OF RADAR . . 2 RADAR PULSES BOUNCE OFF AIRCRAFT AND
RADAR DISH RECIEVES
RETURNED SIGNAL
COMPUTER MEASURES HOW LONG BETWEEN TIME THE
PULSE IS SENT OUT AND WHEN IT RETURNS: . .
TIME (SEC)
SPEED OF LIGHT (186,000 MILES PER SECOND) 2
DISTANCE TO AIRCRAFT

6. BASICS OF RADAR RADAR PULSES BOUNCE OFF AIRCRAFT AND
RADAR DISH RECIEVES
RETURNED SIGNAL
DIRECTION OF RETURN PULSE GIVES AZIMUTH AND
HEIGHT OF AIRCRAFT (FROM ANGLE AND DISTANCE)

7. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

8. DOPPLER EFFECT
STATIONARY

9. DOPPLER EFFECT
STATIONARY
MOVING
TOWARDS

10. DOPPLER EFFECT
STATIONARY
MOVING
TOWARDS
MOVING
AWAY

11. DOPPLER EFFECT
STATIONARY

12. DOPPLER EFFECT
STATIONARY

13. DOPPLER EFFECT
STATIONARY
MOVING
TOWARDS

14. DOPPLER EFFECT
STATIONARY
MOVING
TOWARDS

15. DOPPLER EFFECT
STATIONARY
MOVING
TOWARDS
MOVING
AWAY

16. DOPPLER EFFECT
STATIONARY
MOVING
TOWARDS
MOVING
AWAY

17. DOPPLER EFFECT

18. DOPPLER EFFECT

19. DOPPLER EFFECT

20. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

21. INVERSE SQUARE LAW EMITTED POWER IS RADIATED AS A SPHERE,
IT’S POWER PER SQ METER
DECREASES AS THE SPHERE
GETS BIGGER

22. INVERSE SQUARE LAW EMITTED POWER IS RADIATED AS A SPHERE,
IT’S POWER PER SQ METER
DECREASES AS THE SPHERE
GETS BIGGER

23. INVERSE SQUARE LAW EMITTED POWER IS RADIATED AS A SPHERE,
IT’S POWER PER SQ METER
DECREASES AS THE SPHERE
GETS BIGGER

24. INVERSE SQUARE LAW EMITTED POWER IS RADIATED AS A SPHERE,
IT’S POWER PER SQ METER
DECREASES AS THE SPHERE
GETS BIGGER
SAME AMOUNT OF
POWER IS SPREAD
OVER A LARGER AND
LARGER AREA

25. INVERSE SQUARE LAW EMITTED POWER IS RADIATED AS A SPHERE,
IT’S POWER PER SQ METER
DECREASES AS THE SPHERE
GETS BIGGER
SAME AMOUNT OF
POWER IS SPREAD
OVER A LARGER AND
LARGER AREA

26. INVERSE SQUARE LAW EMITTED POWER IS RADIATED AS A SPHERE,
IT’S POWER PER SQ METER
DECREASES AS THE SPHERE
GETS BIGGER
SAME AMOUNT OF
POWER IS SPREAD
OVER A LARGER AND
LARGER AREA

27. INVERSE SQUARE LAW r INVERSE SQUARE LAW: AREA OF A SPHERE = 4  r2
AREA INCREASES AS THE
SQUARE OF THE RADIUS
AREA OF A SPHERE = 4  r2 r
POWER / M2 = POWER RADIATED / AREA OF SPHERE

28. INVERSE SQUARE LAW r INVERSE SQUARE LAW: AREA OF A SPHERE = 4  r2
AREA INCREASES AS THE
SQUARE OF THE RADIUS
AREA OF A SPHERE = 4  r2
DOUBLE THE RADIUS, AREA INCREASES 4X
AND 1/4 THE POWER
TEN TIMES THE RADIUS, AREA INCREASES 100X
AND 1/100 THE POWER r
POWER / M2 = POWER RADIATED / AREA OF SPHERE

29. INVERSE SQUARE LAW r INVERSE SQUARE LAW: AREA OF A SPHERE = 4  r2
AREA INCREASES AS THE
SQUARE OF THE RADIUS
AREA OF A SPHERE = 4  r2
POWER = 1 kW
IF RADIUS = 1 METER: AREA = 12.6 M2
SO POWER = kW / M2
IF RADIUS = 2 METER: AREA = 50 M2
IF RADIUS = 10 METER: AREA = 1260 M2
DOUBLE THE RADIUS, AREA INCREASES 4X
AND 1/4 THE POWER
TEN TIMES THE RADIUS, AREA INCREASES 100X
AND 1/100 THE POWER 1
12.6 r 1 50 1
1260
POWER / M2 = POWER RADIATED / AREA OF SPHERE

30. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

31. POWER REQUIREMENTS - RADARS ONLY EMIT IN A TIGHT PATTERN,
NOT 360º, SO ENERGY IS ORIGINALLY
TIGHTLY FOCUSED
- ONCE EMITTED THOUGH, THE ENERGY
STILL DISSIPATES ACCORDING TO THE
INVERSE SQUARE LAW

32. POWER REQUIREMENTS ONCE THE RADAR PULSES BOUNCE OFF AN AIRCRAFT,
THE POWER IS REDUCED BY
THE SQUARE OF THE
DISTANCE AGAIN, RESULTING
IN A POWER DECREASE = r 4!
DOUBLING THE DISTANCE RESULTS IN 24 LESS ENERGY = 1/16th THE POWER
TEN TIMES THE DISTANCE RESULTS IN 104 LESS ENERGY = 1/10,000 THE POWER!

33. POWER REQUIREMENTS WHAT DOES THIS ALL MEAN?
- TRANSMITTERS NEED TO EMIT
A LOT OF POWER
- RECEIVERS NEED TO BE ABLE
TO DETECT VERY WEAK RETURNS
*** THE LARGER THE ANTENNA
RECEIVER, THE MORE SENSITIVE

34. RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
ALL THE WAY BACK

35. RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
ALL THE WAY BACK

36. RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
ALL THE WAY BACK

37. RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
ALL THE WAY BACK

38. RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
ALL THE WAY BACK

39. RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
ALL THE WAY BACK

40. RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
RADAR SIGNAL MUST GO ALL THE WAY OUT TO THE TARGET, THEN
ALL THE WAY BACK

41. JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
JAMMER SIGNAL ONLY HAS TO TRAVEL ONE WAY, SO THE SIGNAL
ARRIVES AT THE RADAR WITH MORE POWER THAN THE RADAR SIGNAL

42. JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
JAMMER SIGNAL ONLY HAS TO TRAVEL ONE WAY, SO THE SIGNAL
ARRIVES AT THE RADAR WITH MORE POWER THAN THE RADAR SIGNAL

43. JAMMING POWER ADVANTAGE:
JAMMER SIGNAL ONLY HAS TO TRAVEL ONE WAY, SO THE SIGNAL
ARRIVES AT THE RADAR WITH MORE POWER THAN THE RADAR SIGNAL

44. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

45. RADAR ELECTRONIC COUNTERMEASURES (ECM)
TWO TYPES:
- PASSIVE COUNTERMEASURES:
- REFLECTORS
- CHAFF
- DECOYS
- STEALTH
- ACTIVE COUNTERMEASURES
- HARD KILL
- JAMMING

46. PASSIVE ECM REFLECTORS: REFELCTORS ON THE AIRCRAFT CAUSE
SPURIOUS RETURNS
THAT MAY CONFUSE
SOME OLDER RADARS

47. PASSIVE ECM
DECOYS:
RELEASE DECOYS WITH THE SAME RADAR CROSS SECTION AS THE AIRCRAFT SO RADAR DOESN’T KNOW WHICH IS THE REAL ONE

48. PASSIVE ECM CHAFF: CHAFF REFLECTS THE RADAR SIGNAL BACK ALSO, HIDING
THE AIRCRAFT IN A
“CLOUD” OF
RETURNS
*** CHAFF MUST BE CUT TO SPECIFIC LENGTHS ACCORDING TO THE
WAVELANGTH () OF THE TARGET RADAR(S) (LENGTH =  / 2 )

49. PASSIVE ECM STEALTH: STEALTH ABSORBS SOME OF THE ENERGY
AND REFLECTS THE
REST OF THE SIGNALS
AWAY FROM THE RADAR

50. ACTIVE ECM - HARD KILL AGM-88C High Speed
Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM)
Homes on Emitted Radar Radiation and Destroys Radar

51. ACTIVE ECM - HARD KILL Conventional Attack Against Known Radar Sites:
- Cruise Missile attacks against known radars to
“punch a hole in the defenses”
- Dedicated Fighter or Attack Helicopter attacks on
known radar sites and SAM systems
- Decoys to force mobile SAMs to radiate, allowing
targeting by CAS or Interdiction Aircraft

52. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING RADAR RETURN NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY
IF RADAR RETURN IS STRONGER THAN THE NATURAL OCCURRING
BACKGROUND NOISE, (S/N >1), THE OBJECT IS DETECTED

53. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING RADAR RETURN NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY
IF RADAR RETURN IS NOT STRONGER THAN THE NATURAL OCCURRING
BACKGROUND NOISE, (S/N <1), THE OBJECT CANNOT BE DETECTED

54. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

55. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
DIRECT NOISE ENERGY AT
THE RADAR AT OPERATING
FREQUENCY TO MASK
RADAR RETURN 1
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE
FREQUENCY

56. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING
Successful Jamming Requires Three Conditions to be met:
- Jammer energy that reaches target must be greater
than energy received from radar return
- Jammer must be on the exact frequency of the
transmitting radar
- Jammer must “get into” the radar receiver, either
through alignment or through radar sidelobes

57. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING
Successful Jamming Requires Three Conditions to be met:
- Jammer energy that reaches target must be greater
than energy received from radar return
- Jammer must be on the exact frequency of the
transmitting radar
- Jammer must “get into” the radar receiver, either
through alignment or through radar sidelobes

58. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
RADAR CAN INCREASE IT’S
POWER TO OVERCOME THE
JAMMING 1
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE
FREQUENCY

59. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
BUT THE ENEMY MAY BE ABLE
TO TURN UP THE JAMMER
POWER HIGHER THAN YOU CAN
TURN UP THE RADAR POWER 1
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE
FREQUENCY

60. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING
Successful Jamming Requires Three Conditions to be met:
- Jammer energy that reaches target must be greater
than energy received from radar return
- Jammer must be on the exact frequency of the
transmitting radar
- Jammer must “get into” the radar receiver, either
through alignment or through radar sidelobes

61. OPERATING FREQUENCY CAN (WITHIN ANTENNA CONSTRAINTS)
ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING
NOISE JAMMING:
RADAR THAT CAN CHANGE
OPERATING FREQUENCY CAN
MOVE AWAY FROM JAMMING
(WITHIN ANTENNA CONSTRAINTS)
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

62. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE + JAMMING FREQUENCY
WIDEBAND JAMMER MAY BE
ABLE TO JAM ALL THE FREQUENCIES
THE RADAR CAN OPERATE AT 1
NATURAL
NOISE
+ JAMMING
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
FREQUENCY
***THIS WILL REQUIRE MASSIVE POWER FROM THE JAMMER TO
EXCEED THE SIGNAL STRENGTH AT ALL POSSIBLE FREQ IN RANGE

63. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
EACH TIME THE RADAR
SWITCHES FREQUENCIES
THE JAMMER CAN CHASE IT
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

64. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
EACH TIME THE RADAR
SWITCHES FREQUENCIES
THE JAMMER CAN CHASE IT
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

65. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
EACH TIME THE RADAR
SWITCHES FREQUENCIES
THE JAMMER CAN CHASE IT
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

66. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
EACH TIME THE RADAR
SWITCHES FREQUENCIES
THE JAMMER CAN CHASE IT
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

67. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING NOISE JAMMING: NATURAL NOISE FREQUENCY
EACH TIME THE RADAR
SWITCHES FREQUENCIES
THE JAMMER CAN CHASE IT
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

68. DIFFICULT FOR THE JAMMER CAUSES CONSTANT PROBLEMS
ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING
NOISE JAMMING:
DIFFICULT FOR THE JAMMER
TO KEEP UP WITH, BUT
CAUSES CONSTANT PROBLEMS
FOR THE RADAR OPERATOR
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

69. DIFFICULT FOR THE JAMMER CAUSES CONSTANT PROBLEMS
ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING
NOISE JAMMING:
DIFFICULT FOR THE JAMMER
TO KEEP UP WITH, BUT
CAUSES CONSTANT PROBLEMS
FOR THE RADAR OPERATOR
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

70. DIFFICULT FOR THE JAMMER CAUSES CONSTANT PROBLEMS
ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING
NOISE JAMMING:
DIFFICULT FOR THE JAMMER
TO KEEP UP WITH, BUT
CAUSES CONSTANT PROBLEMS
FOR THE RADAR OPERATOR
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N)
NATURAL
NOISE 1
FREQUENCY

71. ACTIVE ECM - JAMMING
Successful Jamming Requires Three Conditions to be met:
- Jammer energy that reaches target must be greater
than energy received from radar return
- Jammer must be on the exact frequency of the
transmitting radar
- Jammer must “get into” the radar receiver, either
through alignment or through radar sidelobes

72. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING
ALIGNMENT:
MAINLOBE
SIDELOBES
SCOPE DEPICTION

73. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING ALIGNMENT: MAINLOBE RADAR WITH SIDLOBE
SUPRESSION
SCOPE DEPICTION

74. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING ALIGNMENT: MAINLOBE JAMMER MUST BE ALIGNED WITH
THE STRIKERS TO
EFFECTIVELY JAM
RADAR WITH SIDLOBE
SUPRESSION
SCOPE DEPICTION

75. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING ALIGNMENT: Antenna Nulling Jammer B A
Target Aircraft
Distance B is longer than distance A,
so left side of the antenna receives the
signal later than the right, this tells the
computer that the signal is coming from
the right of the antenna. B A
Antenna Nulling

76. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING ALIGNMENT: Antenna Nulling Jammer
Target Aircraft
The computer can then ignore all signals
coming from that direction. (Ignores the
jamming)
Antenna Nulling

77. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING ALIGNMENT: Antenna Nulling Jammer
Target Aircraft
Ignored
With the jamming ignored from
the right, the target aircraft is
again visible. The jammer
must be aligned with the target
aircraft to avoid antenna nullling.
Antenna Nulling

78. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING ALIGNMENT: Antenna Nulling Jammer Target
Aircraft
Ignored
With proper alignment, the
computer strips the jamming
and the target aircraft
returns, once again masking
the target.
Antenna Nulling

79. ACTIVE ECCM - JAMMING BURN THROUGH: NATURAL NOISE + JAMMING FREQUENCY
AS OBJECT GETS CLOSER TO
RADAR, THE RETURN GETS
STRONGER UNTIL IT SHOWS
THROUGH THE JAMMING
NATURAL
NOISE
+ JAMMING
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
(S/N) 1
FREQUENCY
THE POINT AT WHICH THE SIGNAL EXCEEDS THE JAMMER’S POWER
IS KNOWN AS THE “BURN THROUGH” RANGE

80. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

81. Bi-Static/Multi-Static Radar

82. Bi-Static/Multi-Static Radar

83. Bi-Static/Multi-Static Radar
Stealth Implications:
Against Stealth Aircraft, Radiating
Antenna may not see the return. . .

84. Bi-Static/Multi-Static Radar
Stealth Implications:
Against Stealth Aircraft, Radiating
Antenna may not see the return. . .
But the energy radiated away from the emitting radar
is seen by the passive receivers. Knowing the emitter
location and the receiver locations allows triangulation

85. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

86. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
About 1500 high- power pulses per second are
transmitted toward the target or imaging area
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) refers to a technique
used to synthesize a very long antenna by combining
signals (echoes) received by the radar as it moves along
its flight track.

87. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Each Radar return is “synthesized” into a High
Resolution, 3D image
Requires high speed computers and a lot of computer
processing capability
Can see at night and through cloud cover, dust,
smoke, etc. with near picture quality imaging

88. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

89. Phased Array Radar
Stationary Antenna that uses Electronic Switching to steer
the Wavefront:
Broadside
Scanned Beam
Direction
Equiphase Front
Radiators
0-360 Phase
Shifters 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Power
Distribution
Network
Antenna Input

90. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

91. Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR)
Like Radar, but uses a Laser instead of RF Energy
Laser Sensors (LIDAR)
- Atmospheric Measurements
-- Wind, Moisture Content, Temperature, and Pressure
- Vibration Detection
-- Tunnel/Underground Facility Detection
-- Ground vibrations for Target ID of vehicles
- Vortex Detection for tracking Aircraft and Cruise Missiles
- LIDAR HSI and 3D Imaging
- Chemical Warfare Agent Detection

92. OVERVIEW - Basics of Radar - Doppler Effect - Inverse Square Law
- Power Requirements
- Electronic Counter Measures (ECM/ECCM)
- Bistatic or Multistatic Radar
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
- Phased Array Radar
- LIDAR
- Summary

93. SUMMARY ALL Radar and Jammers live by the Inverse
Square Law - Most Power wins
Passive and Active Techniques for Defeating
Radar
Jamming Requires:
- Power
- Frequency
- Alignment