1. AP Biology The Cell Cycle Part 1

2. Important concepts from previous units: 1) RNA molecules can act as enzymes; as well as deliver molecular information. 2) DNA is more stable and longer lasting than RNA; therefore it is the principle molecule of inheritance. 3) All organisms must be able to reproduce to keep life going on Earth.

3. Answer to Bonus Points: the deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less reactive than the ribose sugar –In general C-H bonds are less reactive than C-OH (hydroxyl). Also, RNA is not very stable in alkaline conditions, while DNA is. –The double-strand DNA (dsDNA) has relatively small 'grooves' where damaging enzymes can attach, which makes it harder for them to 'attack' the DNA. Double- stranded RNA (dsRNA) has much larger grooves, so it would more subject to being broken down Second, the connection between the strands of dsDNA is tighter than dsRNA -- it's easier to 'unzip' dsRNA than it is to unzip dsDNA. Overall, it's easier (faster, requires less energy) to break down and reform RNA than DNA -- since we want our genetic material to be stable, we want the substance that's harder to break down

4. ALL cells undergo three basic processes associated with reproduction. – Replication of the DNA within the parent cell. This occurs in what is referred to as the “S phase”. “s” stands for synthesis which means “to make”. We need a copy of DNA for each new cell that is created. – Replication of any items that are in the cytoplasm, such as ribosomes and organelles, if it is a eukaryotic cell. – Division of the cytoplasm and cell membrane. This is referred to as cytokinesis; which means “movement of the cytoplasm”.

5. One cell becoming two

6. Binary Fission in Prokaryotes – This is the process of Reproduction/Replication in prokaryotes (bacteria). – DNA replication(S phase) starts at the “origin” and works around the entire single, circular chromosome, this results in two identical circular chromosomes in the nucleoid region. (Discovered by John Cairns in the 1960’s. He referred to it as Circular or Theta replication. The Greek symbol for the letter Theta is: Θ.) – This is followed by producing a cleavage furrow in the cell membrane (cytokinesis) to produce 2 new cells that are referred to as clones. The cleavage furrow is produced using actin and myosin microfilaments of the cytoskeleton.. They are called clones because they possess 100% identical DNA strands. – How is Binary Fission related to mitosis, as seen in Eukaryotes, in terms of evolution? Binary Fission would have evolved into Mitosis as the DNA content of cells increased dramatically and also, as the endosymbiant hypothesis states, “organelles” came into existence. The two major steps are the same: synthesis and division.

7. Binary Fission in Prokaryotes Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane Bacterial chromosome E. coli cell Two copies of origin Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell. Replication continues. One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell. Origin Replication finishes. The plasma membrane grows inward, and new cell wall is deposited. Two daughter cells result.

8. Reproduction by Eukaryotic cells This is a part of the Cell Cycle. (A Cell Life History basically.) Cell Division, by a parent cell, results in 2 genetically identical daughter cells (offspring). The daughter cells are genetically identical to each other and the previous parent cell. Maturation occurs after division. The cells are growing and being able to perform its adult functions. This process is also necessary for normal growth (such as in size of organs) and repair of existing structures.

9. The process requires that DNA reproduction take place. – DNA could be thought of as the “Million Dollar Blue Prints” for making items required by cells. – Genome – This is the entire genetic material (DNA) for an organism or cell. The genomes “Blue Prints” vary from species to species. In humans, the genome length is about 2 m or 7 ft. per cell. DNA has two different appearances (states) within a cell and it depends on what is happening within the cell. – Chromatin – this is the loose state of DNA. It is like looking at a bowl of spaghetti noodles (without the sauce). The DNA “noodles” can be moved around to find the gene segment of interest for Transcription. – Chromosomes – this is the tightly coiled state of DNA. It looks like a cork screw shaped pasta noodle. These are for dividing equally and easily. (Have you ever tried to divide a bowl of spaghetti noodles 100% equally?)

11. Chromatin vs. Chromosomes appearance within the cell.

12. the haploid human genome contains approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA packaged into 23 chromosomes. – most cells in the body (except for female ova and male sperm) are diploid, with 23 pairs of chromosomes. – That makes a total of 6 billion base pairs of DNA per cell. Because each base pair is around 0.34 nanometers long (a nanometer is one-billionth of a meter), each diploid cell therefore contains about 2 meters of DNA [(0.34 × 10-9) × (6 × 109)]. Moreover, it is estimated that the human body contains about 50 trillion cells—which works out to 100 trillion meters of DNA per human. Now, consider the fact that the Sun is 150 billion meters from Earth. This means that each of us has enough DNA to go from here to the Sun and back more than 300 times, or around Earth's equator 2.5 million times! How is this possible?

13. Somatic cells – (“soma” means body) These are your normal body cells. – These are the cells that make up the majority of an organism. – Their chromosomal content is 2n or diploid. (They get half “n”from the “mother”; half “n” from the “father ) Half,in terms of chromosomal content, is referred to as “haploid or n” – For humans cells, our diploid number is 46 chromosomes = 2n.(n= 23 in the egg; n=23 in the sperm)

15. Germ cells – (“germ” means beginning) These cells will undergo meiosis to become haploid “n”. – Meiosis is the process of making haploid sperm or eggs that are intended for contributing DNA to sexual reproduction. – A.K.A. gametes or sex cells. – Meiosis results in sperm for males OR eggs for females. They are “n” or haploid and have 23 chromosomes.

16. Somatic cells vs. Germ cells The egg surrounded by sperm.

17. Histones – These are the proteins that help DNA coil up “condense” to form the chromosomes needed for division. – When DNA is wrapped around these histones, the whole combined structure is referred to as a nucleosome.

18. Coiling up of Chromatin using histones

21. Sister Chromatids (“tid” means “portion) A portion of the whole “duplicated” chromosome. – This term refers to half of a duplicated chromosome. Duplicated chromosomes look like an “X”. – The two halves are held together at the centromere (means “center unit”) which is a group of proteins in a constricted portion of the chromosome..

22. Sister Chromatids

24. Mitosis vs. Meiosis – Mitosis – This process refers to ordinary cell division. (Parent cell and daughter cells are exactly alike genetically.) Involves only ONE division after replication occurs in the S phase. – Meiosis – This is the process of forming haploid gametes. (Gametes have half the genetic material as the parent cell and they are NOT genetically identical to each other or the parent.) Involves TWO divisions after replication in the S phase.

26. Mitosis (1 Division) vs. Meiosis (2 Divisions)