1. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 1 2—The Science of Child Development Theories of Development Research in Child Development Facing Up to Research Challenges Summary

2. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 2 Theories of Development The scientific method is essentially a four- step process: 1. Conceptualize a process or problem to be studied. 2. Collect research information (data) 3. Analyze data. 4. Draw conclusions.

3. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 3 Theories of Development Theory –An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make predictions. Hypotheses –Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.

4. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 4 Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories –Describes development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized.

5. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 5 Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories (continued) –Freud’s Psychosexual Theory As Freud listened to, probed, and analyzed his patients, he became convinced that their problems were the result of early experiences in life. Our adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between early sources of pleasure—the mouth, the anus, and the genitals— and the demands of reality.

6. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 6 Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories –Freud’s Psychosexual Theory (continued) Oral stage Anal stage Phallic stage Latency stage Genital stage –Many contemporary psychoanalytic theorists place less emphasis on sexual instincts and more emphasis on cultural experiences as determinants of an individual’s development

7. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 7 Theories of Development Freudian Stages Refer to Figure 2.1

8. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 8 Theories of Development –Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson recognized Freud’s contributions but believed that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development Erikson’s theory includes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crises that must be faced.

9. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 9 Theories of Development –Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Trust versus mistrust Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Industry versus inferiority Identity versus identity confusion Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation Integrity versus despair

10. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 10 Theories of Development –Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories Contributions of psychoanalytic theories: –Early experiences play an important part in development. –Family relationships are a central aspect of development. –Personality can be better understood if it is examined developmentally. –The mind is not all conscious; unconscious aspects of the mind need to be considered. –Changes take place in adulthood as well as the childhood (Erikson).

11. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 11 Theories of Development –Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories Criticisms of psychoanalytic theories: –The main concepts have been difficult to test scientifically. –Much of the data used to support psychoanalytic theories are of unknown accuracy. –The sexual underpinnings of development are given too much importance (especially in Freud’s theory). –The unconscious mind is given too much credit for influencing development. –Present an image of humans that is too negative. –Are culture- and gender-based.

12. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 12 Theories of Development Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages Refer to Figure 2.2

13. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 13 Theories of Development Cognitive Theories –Cognitive theories emphasize children’s conscious thoughts. –Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Piaget’s theory –States that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development.

14. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 14 Theories of Development Cognitive Theories –Piaget’s (continued) Assimilation –Occurs when children incorporate new information into their existing knowledge. Accommodation –Occurs when children adjust to new information. Assimilation and accommodation operate even in the very young infant’s life.

15. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 15 Theories of Development –Piaget’s (continued) Piaget believed that we go through four stages in understanding the world. –The sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age. –The preoperational stage, which lasts approximately 2 to 7 years of age. –The concrete operational stage, which lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age. –The formal operational stage, which appears between the ages of 11 and 15.

16. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 16 Theories of Development Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Refer to Figure 2.3

17. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 17 Theories of Development –Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory Vygotsky’s theory –A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. –Vygotsky believed that children’s social interaction with more-skilled adults and peers is indispensable in advancing cognitive development.

18. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 18 Theories of Development –Information-Processing Theory Emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this approach are the processes of memory and thinking.

19. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 19 Theories of Development –Evaluating the Cognitive Theories Contributions of cognitive theories: –Present a positive view of development, emphasizing conscious thinking. –Emphasize the individual’s active construction of understanding. –Underscore the importance of examining developmental changes in children’s thinking. –Information-processing theory offers detailed descriptions of cognitive processes.

20. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 20 Theories of Development –Evaluating the Cognitive Theories Criticisms of cognitive theories: –Skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages. –Do not give adequate attention to individual variations in cognitive development. –Information-processing theory does not provide an adequate description of developmental changes in cognition. –Psychoanalytic theorists argue that the cognitive theories do not give enough credit to unconscious thought.

21. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 21 Theories of Development Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories –Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning –Skinner’s Operant Conditioning –Social Cognitive Theory The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. Bandura believes that people cognitively represent the behavior of others and then sometimes adopt this behavior themselves.

22. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 22 Theories of Development –Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Contribution of the behavioral and social cognitive theories: –The importance of scientific research –The environmental determinants of behavior –The importance of observational learning (Bandura) –Person and cognitive factors (social cognitive theory)

23. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 23 Theories of Development –Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Criticisms of the behavioral and social cognitive theories: –To little emphasis on cognition (Pavlov, Skinner) –Too much emphasis on environmental determinants –Inadequate attention to developmental changes –Too much mechanical and inadequate consideration of the spontaneity and creativity of humans

24. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 24 Theories of Development Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model Refer to Figure 2.4

25. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 25 Theories of Development Ethological Theory –Ethology Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. –The ethological view of Konrad Lorenz and the European zoologists forced American developmental psychologists to recognize the importance of the biological basis of behavior.

26. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 26 Theories of Development Ethological Theory (continued) –Contributions of ethological theory: Increased focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development Use of careful observations in naturalistic settings Emphasis on sensitive periods of development

27. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 27 Theories of Development Ethological Theory (continued) –Criticisms of ethological theory: The concepts of critical and sensitive periods might be too rigid. It places too strong an emphasis on biological foundations. It gives inadequate attention to cognition. Theory has been better at generating research with animals than with humans

28. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 28 Theories of Development Ecological Theory –Bronfenbrenner’s environmental system theory that focuses on five environmental systems: Microsystem—the setting in which the individual lives. Mesosystem—involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts.

29. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 29 Theories of Development Ecological Theory –Bronfenbrenner (continued) Exosystem—when experiences in another social setting influence what the individual experiences in an immediate context Macrosystem—the culture in which individuals live. Chronosystem—the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the live course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances.

30. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 30 Theories of Development Ecological Theory –Contributions of ecological theory: Systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems Attention to connections between environmental settings (mesosystem) Consideration of sociohistorical influences on development (chronosystem)

31. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 31 Theories of Development Ecological Theory –Criticisms of ecological theory: Too little attention to biological foundations of development. May give inadequate attention to cognitive processes.

32. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 32 Theories of Development Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development Refer to Figure 2.5

33. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 33 Theories of Development An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation –An orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach, but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it.

34. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 34 Theories of Development A Comparison of Theories and Issues in Child Development Refer to Figure 2.7

35. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 35 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 Describe theories of child development

36. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 36 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 –Review What are the four steps in the scientific method? What is the relationship between a theory and hypotheses? What are two main psychoanalytic theories? What are some of the terms, contributions, and criticisms of the psychoanalytic theories? What are three main cognitive theories?

37. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 37 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 –Review (continued) What are three main behavioral and social cognitive theories? What are some of the terms, contributions, and criticisms of the behavioral and social cognitive theories? What is the nature of ethological theory? What are some of its terms, contributions, and criticisms? What is an eclectic theoretical orientation?

38. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 38 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 –Reflect Which of the theories do you think best explains your won development? Why?

39. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 39 Research in Child Development Types of Research –Descriptive Research A type of research whose purpose is to observe and record behavior. Observation –Laboratory—A controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the “real world” are removed. –Naturalistic observation—Observing behavior in real- world settings Survey and Interview

40. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 40 Research in Child Development Types of Research –Descriptive Research (continued) Standardized Test –A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person’s performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals. Case Study –An in-depth look at a single individual

41. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 41 Research in Child Development Types of Research –Descriptive Research (continued) Correlational Research –A type of research whose goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. –Correlation coefficient—A number based on statistical analysis used to describe the degree of association between two variables.

42. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 42 Research in Child Development Types of Research –Descriptive Research (continued) Experimental Research –Experiment—A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant. –Independent and Dependent Variables –Experimental and Control Groups

43. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 43 Research in Child Development Possible Explanations for Correlational Data Refer to Figure 2.9

44. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 44 Research in Child Development Principles of Experimental Research Refer to Figure 2.10

45. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 45 Research in Child Development Time Span of Research –Cross-Sectional Approach A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time. –Longitudinal Approach A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years of more.

46. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 46 Research in Child Development A Comparison of Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Approaches Refer to Figure 2.11

47. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 47 Research in Child Development Research Journals –A journal publishes scholarly and academic information, usually in a specific domain, such as physics, math, sociology, or child development. –Scholars in these fields publish most of their research in journals.

48. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 48 Research in Child Development Connections of Research Methods to Theories Refer to Figure 2.12

49. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 49 Explorations in Child Development Being a Wise Consumer of Information About Children’s Development –Be Cautious About What Is Reported in the Popular Media –Don’t Assume Group Research Applies to an Individual

50. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 50 Explorations in Child Development Being a Wise Consumer (continued) –Don’t Overgeneralize About a Small or Clinical Sample –Don’t Generally Take a Single Study as the Defining Word –Don’t Accept Causal Conclusions from Correlational Studies

51. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 51 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 Explain how research on child development is conducted

52. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 52 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 –Review What are three main types of research? What are four types of descriptive research? What is correlational research like? How can experimental research be characterized? What are some ways that researchers study the time span of people’s lives? What are research journals like? What are the main sections of a research journal article?

53. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 53 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 –Reflect You have learned that correlation does not equal causation. Develop an example of two variables (two sets of observations) that are correlated but that you believe almost certainly have no causal relationship.)

54. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 54 Facing Up to Research Challenges Conducting Ethical Research –Ethics Guidelines Informed Consent Confidentiality Debriefing Deception

55. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 55 Facing Up to Research Challenges Minimizing Bias –Gender Bias –Cultural and Ethnic Bias Ethnic gloss –Using an ethnic label such as African American or Latino in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogenous than it really is.

56. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 56 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 Discuss research challenges in child development –Review What are researchers’ ethical responsibilities to the people they study? How can gender, cultural, and ethnic bias affect the outcome of a research study?

57. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 57 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 –Reflect Imagine that you are conducting a research study on the sexual attitudes and behaviors of adolescents. What ethical safeguards should you use in conducting the study?

58. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 58 Summary The scientific method involves four main steps: (1) conceptualize a problem. (2) collect data, (3) analyze data, and (4) draw conclusions. Psychoanalytic theory describes development as primarily subconscious and as heavily colored by emotion.

59. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 59 Summary Cognitive theories emphasize conscious thoughts. Three versions of the behavioral approach are Pavlov’s classical conditioning, Skinner’s operant conditioning, and Bandura’s social cognitive theory.

60. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 60 Summary Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods.

61. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 61 Summary Ecological theory is Bronfenbrenner’s environmental systems view of development. It consists of five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

62. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 62 Summary An eclectic theoretical orientation does not follow any one theoretical approach, but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it. Three main types of research are (1) descriptive, (2) correlational, and (3) experimental.

63. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 63 Summary A journal publishes scholarly and academic information, and an increasing number of journals publish information about child development.

64. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 64 Summary Researchers’ ethical responsibilities include seeking participants informed consent, ensuring their confidentiality, debriefing them about the purpose and potential personal consequences of participating, and avoiding unnecessary deception of participants.

65. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 65 Summary Researchers need to guard against gender, cultural, and ethnic bias in research.