1. Thinking & Language Chapter 8 & 9

2. Thinking Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating. Cognitive Psychologists Study  Concepts  Problem Solving  Decision Making  Judgment Formation

3. Concepts Concepts – the mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. For example… There are a variety of chair types, but their common features define them as a chair. We form some concepts with definitions.  A triangle has three sides.  We also form Prototypes – A robin is a prototypical bird, while penguin is not.

4. Problem Solving Strategies  Trial & Error  Algorithms  Heuristics  Insight Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning. For example, what is the fastest way out of this classroom? Problem Solving: Making Decisions & Forming Judgments

5. Category Hierarchies We organize concepts into category hierarchies.

6. Trial & Error We’re all used to this approach. Try, try, try again. For example… Will your joke make Teacher laugh?

7. Algorithms Exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms. Very time consuming. S P L O Y O C H Y G If we unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities.

8. Heuristics Heuristics – thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Less time consuming than algorithms. More error prone than algorithms. For example… Words with two Y’s probably end in a Y. S P L O Y O C H Y G S P L O Y O C H G Y

9. Insight Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight. Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when insight strikes, it activates the right temporal cortex. Your “Aha” Moment

10. Obstacles in Solving Problems Confirmation Bias – a tendency to search for information that confirms personal bias. For Example… If you are good at soccer, and are watching another high school soccer game, you will probably search for information that suggests the other team/player is not as good as you.

11. Fixation Fixation – an inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. The Matchstick Problem How would you arrange six Matches to form four Equilateral triangles?

12. The Matchstick Problem - Solution

13. The Candle Mounting Problem Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

14. Candle Mounting Problem - Solution

15. Overconfidence A tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. For Example… In the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be overconfident about their decisions on a stock. Have you ever got a “bad” deal when buying a car, or are you confident that you got a good deal?

16. Language Language – our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others. Language transmits culture.

17. Language Development Children learn their native languages much before learning to add 2+2. We learn on average (after age 1) 3,500 words a year, amassing 60,000 words by the time we graduate form high school.

18. When do we Learn Language? Babbling Stage Beginning at 4 months. The infant spontaneously utters various sounds, like ah-goo. Not an imitation of adult speech.

19. When do we Learn Language? One-Word Stage – beginning at or around his first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a time and is able to make family members understand him.  The word doggy, means, look at the dog out there. Two-Word Stage – before the 2 nd year, a child starts to speak in two-word sentences. Also called telegraphic speech because the child speaks like a telegram.  Go car, means, I would like to go for a ride in a car. Longer Phrases – after telegraphic speech, children begin uttering longer phrases with syntactical sense, and by early elementary school they are employing humor. For example…  Mommy get ball.

20. Explaining Language Development Operant Learning – Skinner believed that language development may be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement. Inborn Universal Grammar – Chomsky opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn.

21. Explaining Language Development Childhood is a critical period for fully developing certain aspects of language. Children never exposed to any langue (spoken or written) by about age 7, gradually lose their ability to master any language.

22. Genes, Brain, & Language Genes design the mechanisms for language, and experiences modifies the brain.

23. Critical Period Learning new languages gets harder with age.

24. Thinking & Language Language and thinking intricately intertwine.

25. Pic: Units of Language

26. Kinds of Intelligence w Gardner - Theory of Multiple Intelligences  He believed that intelligence could be broken down into seven categories:

27. Thinking in Images To a large extent thinking is language based. When alone, we may talk to ourselves. However, we also think in images. For example… Turning on the hot water. How to ride your bike.

28. Animal Thinking & Language Do animals have a language? Honeybees communicate by dancing. The dance moves clearly indicate the direction of the nectar. Do animals think? Some animals have shown the ability to… Concept formation Insight Problem solving Culture

29. Intelligence What makes us smart? Or not so smart?

30. DEFINING INTELLIGENCE Exactly what makes up intelligence is a matter of debate David Wechsler’s Definition  Act purposefully  Think rationally  Deal effectively with the environment

31. Street SmartBook Smart

32. Theories of Intelligence No one real definition Fluid versus Crystallized Intelligence 4 main theoretical concepts of intelligence….

33. Charles Spearman and his G factor Used factor analysis and discovered that what we see as many different skills is actually one General Intelligence. If you are good at one subject you are usually good at many others. Jack Bauer is good at torturing, bomb defusing, shooting, figuring out evil plots and saving the country (and he is good looking). Is there anything he cannot do?

34. EARLY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE L. L. Thurstone  Believed that intelligence is made up of seven distinct, independent abilities: Spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal meaning, memory, word fluency, reasoning  Thurstone did not believe in a G- Factor, but researchers who scored well in one of the seven areas tended to score well on others. 7 Different abilities!

35. Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences  Gardner believed that there exists at least 7 different types of intelligences. 1. Linguistic 2. Logical-mathematical 3. Spatial 4. Musical 5. Body-kinesthetic 6. Intrapersonal 7. Interpersonal 8. Naturalist

36. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE: HOWARD GARDNER

37. Creativity Defined as the ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects Creativity and Intelligence – Early studies suggested that there was little relationship IQ of at least 120 required to be creative, but it doesn’t mean you will be!

38. Goleman and his EQ Emotional Intelligence Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. Maybe EQ is a better predictor for future success than IQ.

39. Brain Size and Intelligence Is there a link? Small +.15 correlation between head size and intelligence scores (relative to body size). Using an MRI we found +.44 correlation with brain size and IQ score.

40. Problems with the IQ Formula It does not really work well on adults, why? then his IQ would be 50!!!!!! If a 60 year old man does as well as an average 35 year old That makes no sense!!!!!

41. Intelligence Tests: Wechsler Tests More common way to give IQ tests….does not use the formula but uses the same scoring system. WAIS- The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most commonly used test of intelligence for adults. WAIS is divided into to 11 parts that focus on verbal abilities and on performance skills WISC- Also a version for children, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) WPPSI

42. INTELLIGENCE TESTS: WESCHLER SCALES

43. Normal Distribution

44. The Flynn Effect

45. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION Reliability - Ability of a test to provide consistent and stable scores Validity - Ability of a test to measure what it purports to measure

46. Scoring the IQ Test Raw Score - number of questions answered correctly; doesn’t tell much about performance Standard Score - score that tells you how you did compared to other test takers – a much better read of performance  Percentile Score - what percentage of test takers you scored better than  What does it mean to score in the 85 th percentile?

47. Extremes of Intelligence Akrit Jaswal

48. Extremes of Intelligence: Giftedness Definition  top 3% of IQ scores, typically over 132,  Superior IQ combined with ability in academics, creativity, and leadership  Giftedness is often in specific areas  “Globally” gifted people are rare  Some gifted children feel isolated and lonely, but most are well adjusted Specialized Programs of Study?

49. EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISBAILITY) Definition  IQ < 70; lowest 3% of IQ scores  not a result of accident  onset before age 18  substantial limitations in functioning Causes – drug abuse during pregnancy, genetic disorders such as Down Syndrome, lack of fetal nutrition Levels  Mild - 90% of cases  Moderate - 6% of cases  Severe - 3% of cases  Profound - 1% of cases

50. EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISBAILITY)

51. Education and the Law  All children are entitled to an education that is…  FREE  PUBLIC  APPROPRIATE  Mainstreaming  keeping special needs kids in regular ed classes for whatever subject areas/activities they can handle  Inclusion  rather than taking special needs kids out of regular ed classes for support, bring support personnel into regular ed classes so kids can stay with their peers.  Leveling  separating children by ability into different classes

52. Types of Tests Aptitude Measure ability or potential. Achievement Tests that measure what you have learned.

53. APTITUDE VS. ACHIEVEMENT? Achievement tests measure what you have already learned Aptitude tests measure your potential to learn.  There is a positive correlation between aptitude tests results and intelligence tests.  e.g. correlation between SAT and IQ?

54. DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE: NATURE Biological similarities in Adoption Studies  IQ scores of child more closely correlated with biological mother than adoptive mother. Identical Twins reared apart  after identical twins reared together, identical twins reared apart have the highest correlation of IQ scores.

55. Correlation of IQ Scores of Family Members