1. Transduction Transduction is the process by which DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus It also refers the process whereby foreign DNA is introduced into another cell via viral vector

2. Transduction happens through the one of these two cycle Lytic cycle Lysogenic cycle(Temperate cycle) If the lysogenic cycle is adopted, the phage chromosome is integrated into the bacterial chromosome where it can remain dormant for thousand of generation.

3. If the lysogen(Eg: uv light ) is induced, the phage genome is excised from the bacterial chromosome and initiates the lytic cycle Results in the lysis of the cell and release of phage particle. The lytic cycle leads to the production of new phage particles which are released by lysis of the host cell.

4. There are generally two types of recombination events that can lead to this incorporation of bacterial DNA into the viral DNA Generalised transduction Specialised transduction

5. Generalized transduction Generalized transduction may occur in two main ways, recombination and headful packing If bacteriophage undergoes lytic cycle, the virus will take the control of the cell's machinery to replicates its own viral DNA. If by chance bacterial chromosomal DNA is inserted into the viral capsid used to contain the viral DNA, while the lytic pathway is proceeding The mistake will lead to generalized transduction

6. If the virus replicates using headful packing, it attempts to fill the nucleocapsid with bacterial genetic material. If the viral genome results in spare capacity, viral packing mechanism may incorporate bacterial genetic material into the new virion The new virus is now loaded with part of bacterial DNA continues to infect another bacterial cell This bacterial material may become recombined into the new virion.

7. When the new DNA is inserted into this recipient cell, it can fall to one of three fates 1.the DNA will be absorbed by the cell and be recycled for spare parts 2.if the DNA was originally a plasmid, it will re- circularize inside the new cell and become a plasmid 3.if the new DNA matches with a homologous region of the recipients cell's chromosome, it will exchange DNA material similar to the action in conjugation

8. Specialized transduction The second type of recombination event is called specialized transduction. If a virus( nucleic acid) removes itself from the chromosome incorrectly, some of the bacterial DNA can be packaged in to the virion. Mistakes in this process of viral DNA going from the lysogenic cycle to the lytic cycle lead to specialized transduction

9. There are three possible results from specialized transduction 1.DNA can be absorbed and recycles for spare parts 2.the bacterial DNA can match with homologous DNA in the recipient cell and exchange it. the Recipient cell now has DNA from the both itself and the other bacterial cell. DNA can insert itself into the genome of the recipient cell as if still acting like a virus resulting in a double copy of the bacterial genes

11. Characteristics of fungi The different groups of fungi have different levels of cellular organization. Some groups consist of single-celled organisms that have a single nucleus per cell.

12. Other groups consist of single-celled organisms in which each cell has hundreds or thousands of nuclei. Still others consist of multicellular organisms that have one or two nuclei per cell. The bodies of multicellular fungi usually consist of slender, cottony filaments called hyphae.

13. A mass of hyphae is called a mycelium. The mycelium carries on all the life-maintaining processes of the organism, including sexual reproduction (in most species). Unlike plants, fungi do not contain chlorophyll (green pigment) and thus cannot create their own food through photosynthesis

14. Most species of fungi grow on land and obtain their nutrients from dead organic matter. Most species feed by secreting enzymes, which partially break down the food. The fungi then absorb the partially digested food to complete digestion internally

15. Some fungi are parasites, living in or on another organism from which they obtain their nutrients. This relationship usually harms the host. Such parasitic fungi usually have specialized tissues called haustoria that penetrate the host's body. Most of the diseases that afflict agricultural plants are caused by parasitic fungi