1. Chapter 10 Crimes against Persons
Frank Schmalleger
PowerPoint presentation created by
Ellen G. Cohn, Ph.D.

2. Violent Crime Typologies
Crime typology:
A classification of crimes along a particular dimension or set of defined characteristics
Legal categories
Situational factors
Offender motivation
Offender characteristics
Victim behavior

3. Homicide
Statutes distinguish between types of homicide based on intent, circumstances, age, etc.
Fairly rare; small fraction of reported violent crimes
Most involve acquaintances or family
Most preceded by an argument
Offending patterned by socio-demographics

4. The Subculture of Violence Thesis
Wolfgang and Ferracuti’s subculture of violence thesis is the primary perspective used to understand homicide
Victims and offenders have similar socio-demographic characteristics
Victims and offenders intimately known to each other are disproportionately represented
The racial composition of an area alone does not have a significant effect on homicide rates

5. Structural Explanations for Homicide
Regional variations in patterns of violent crimes exist
Some suggest the high homicide rate in the South is due to violence-related norms that are outdated elsewhere
Others claim that the influence of structural variables such as poverty may provide alternative explanations
There is evidence that the South differs from other regions in the frequency of homicide

6. The Victim-Offender Relationship
Wolfgang’s research into homicides
Found 25% of homicides were between family members –women more likely to be both offenders and victims
Males more likely to be killed by friends or strangers than by family members
If a male was killed by a female, it was more likely to be his spouse

7. The Victim-Offender Relationship
Primary homicides
Involve family members, friends, and acquaintances
Expressive crimes: result from acts of interpersonal hostility
Nonprimary homicides
Victims and offenders have no prior relationship
Usually occur during another crime
Instrumental crimes: involve premeditation, less likely to be victim precipitated

8. The Victim-Offender Relationship
Exposure-reduction theory of intimate homicide
Dugan, Nagin, and Rosenfeld
Three factors that reduce intimate partner homicide
Declining domesticity
Improved economic status of women
Increase in domestic violence resources

9. Instrumental and Expressive Homicide
Not all homicide offender intend to kill their victims
Instrumental homicide may begin as a robbery motivated by instrumental ends
Expressive homicide may be preceded by an argument
Sibling offense
The incident that begins a homicide
Considering sibling offenses may help explain why some incidents end in murder while others do not

10. Victim Precipitation Victim precipitation
Contributes by the victim to the criminal event
Focus on victim characteristics that may have precipitated the victimization
Intent is not victim blaming, although this has occurred

11. Victim Precipitation
Intimate-partner homicide has gender patterns of victim precipitation
Many homicides committed by women are victim precipitated
Only a small number of homicides committed by men are victim precipitated
There is a positive significant association between alcohol use and victim precipitated homicides

12. Weapon Use Instrumentality Availability
The type of weapon used in an encounter can affect whether the encounter becomes lethal
Availability
Issues surrounding how access to guns may increase their presence in all types of interactions, including criminal ones

13. Alcohol and Drug Use Goldstein’s typology of drugs and crime
Psychopharmacological model
Use of certain drugs produces violent behavior by lowering inhibitions or elevating aggressive tendencies
Economic compulsion
Crimes are committed to support a drug habit
Systemic violence
The connection between drugs and trafficking

14. Alcohol and Drug Use Selective disinhibition
The presence of alcohol in some situations may suspend factors that could restrain violence and may also put into play factors that could increase the occurrence or lethal nature of violence
The disinhibiting effect of alcohol is social, not biochemical
Alcohol significantly predicts most types of primary homicide

15. Gangs Gang homicides are more likely to: Involve minority males
Involve gun use
Occur in public places
Involve victims and offenders with no prior relationship

16. Gangs Gang-motivated violence Gang-affiliated violence
Violent crime as the direct result of gang activity
Gang-affiliated violence
Individual gang members are involved in crime but not as a purposeful result of gang activity

17. Serial Murder Serial murder:
Criminal homicide involving the killing of several victims in three or more events
Typical offender: white male, late 20s or 30s, targets strangers at or near home or work

18. Typologies of Serial Killers
Holmes and DeBurger’s taxonomy
Visionary serial killers: hear voices and have visions
Comfort serial killers: kill for financial or material gain
Hedonistic serial killers: murder for the pleasure of the killing
Power seekers: operate from a position of power over others

19. Typologies of Serial Killers
Fox and Levin’s typology
Thrill-motivated killers: sexual sadism, dominance
Mission-oriented killers: reformist or visionary orientation
Expedience-directed killers: profit or protection

20. Female Serial Killers Disciple killer
Murders as the result of the influence of a charismatic personality
Kelleher and Kelleher’s typology of female serialists
Black widow
Angel of death

21. Female Serial Killers Patterns of female serial killers
Rarely hedonistic
Generally target victims they know
Generally are geographically stable
Generally have longer careers
Tend to be more systematic

22. Apprehending Serial Killers
FBI’s Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (VICAP)
Profiling
Organized nonsocial killers
Disorganized asocial killers
Geomapping

23. Mass Murder Mass murder: Levin and Fox’s typology
Killing more than three people at the same time
Levin and Fox’s typology
Revenge
Love
Profit
Terror

24. Mass Murder Factors or elements that may lead to mass murder:
Predisposers
Precipitants
Facilitators

25. Rape
Estimates of the extent of rape vary depending on the data source used
UCR accuracy is hampered by victim reporting
NCVS accuracy questions due to problems with measurement and disclosure
The best current measure comes from the National Violence Against Women Survey

26. Rape Myths Rape myths Examples
False assumptions about rape that continue to characterize much of the discourse surrounding sexual violence
Culturally based, inhibit victim reporting of rape
Examples
Women bring false charges to get even with men
Women ask for it by wearing provocative clothing or going to bars alone
Women say “no” when they mean “yes”

27. Common Law Definition of Rape
“Carnal knowledge of a woman not one’s wife by force or against her will”
Did not recognize male victims
Did not recognize rape within marriage
Did not allow for other acts of sexual penetration
Did not allow for various means by which force could occur
Rules of evidence required
Victim demonstrate physical resistance
Victim have corroboration that rape occurred
Victim’s sexual history could be admitted into evidence

28. Rape Law Reform Common themes in rape law reforms:
Redefining rape and replacing the single crime of rape with a series of graded offenses
Changing the consent standard by eliminating the requirement that the victim resist the attacker physically
Eliminating the need that the victim’s testimony be corroborated
Placing restrictions on the introduction of evidence of the victim’s prior sexual conduct

29. Rape Law Reform
Some states have even changed the terminology from “rape” to “sexual assault”
Rape shield laws
First introduced in the 1970s
Intended to protect rape victims by ensuring that irrelevant facts about the victim’s sexual past were not introduced into evidence

30. The Effects of Rape Law Reform
New legislation has limited impact on courtroom work group behavior unless they embrace the changes or unless instrumental changes are forced upon them
Legal reforms take time to produce large scale change and must be evaluated continually for more evidence of how change is occurring

31. Acquaintance Rape
Acquaintance rapes are the most common scenario for rapes
Occur when the victim and offender have some prior relationship
Usually occurs within the context of a dating relationship
Frequently underreported

32. Acquaintance Rape Acquaintance rape on college campuses
1992 Campus Sexual Assault Victims’ Bill of Rights Act
Research on rape in college settings frequently focuses on identifying factors in college life that may be conducive to rape
Colleges are developing programs that focus on rape as an issue for men as well as women

33. Marital Rape
The marital exemption began to be eliminated from the statutes in the 1970s
Russell’s typology of men who rape their wives
Husbands who prefer raping their wives to having consensual sex with them
Husbands who enjoy both rape and consensual sex with their wives or who are indifferent to which it is
Husbands who prefer consensual sex with their wives but are willing to rape them if their sexual advances are refused
Husbands who might like to rape their wives but do not act out these desires

34. Prison Rape Same-sex rape can be common in prisons
Inmate victimization does not produce the same level of social outrage as when the victim is “law abiding”
Patterns of rape differ in male and female prisons
Rape within female prisons involves primarily male staff attacking female inmates
Rape within male prisons involves only inmates

35. Feminist Perspective Common elements:
See gender as a social construct rather than a biological given
Do not separate the patriarchal structures within society that contribute to the privileged status of males from rape itself
See rape as an act of power or domination
A rape culture exists that sees male aggression as normal and blames women for their own rape
Feminist perspectives have been criticized for their often one-dimensional view of masculinity

36. Psychopathological Perspective
This perspective is based on two assumptions:
Rape is the result of idiosyncratic mental disease
Rape often includes uncontrollable sexual impulses

37. Psychopathological Perspective
Groth’s typology of rapists
Power rape (most common)
Rape to exert control over women
Anger rape
Attack victims in anger, impulsively, with no prior planning
Sadistic rape (fairly rare)
Combination of power and anger motives and frequently involve torture

38. An Integrated Theory of Rape
Baron and Straus’ integrated theory of rape:
Argues that higher levels of gender inequality, social disorganization, and support for legitimate violence combine to produce higher rape rates at the state level
Support for legitimate violence refers to norms justifying the expression of violence in certain contexts
Gender inequality is related to rape rates because as women’s status in society increases, rape as a mechanism of social control over women is challenged
Social disorganization refers to community inability to sustain social institutions that serve as a buffer to social ills such as crime

39. Evolutionary/Biological Perspectives
Focuses on motives and ends conducive to rape
Different traits relating to mating that developed in males and females may have evolved through sexual selection
Perspective argues that the feminist position of rape ignores the existence of a biologically based sexual motivation

40. Typologies of Rapists
Hazelwood and Burgess’ typology of rapists based on motivation
Power-assertive rapists
Power-reassurance rapists
Anger-retaliatory rapists
Anger-excitation rapists

41. Typologies of Rapists Stevens’ typology of offender motivation
Lust rape
Righteous rape
Peer rape
Control and anger rapes
Supremacy rape
Fantasy rape

42. Typologies of Rapists Scully’s typology of rationalizations Admitters
Deniers

43. Child Sexual Abuse (CSA)
CSA includes a variety of criminal and civil offenses in which an adult:
Engages in sexual activity with a minor
Exploits a minor for purposes of sexual gratification, or
Exploits a minor sexually for purposes of profit
CSA is greatly despised but little understood
Commonly believed that CSA is underreported

44. Typology of CSA Groth’s two-part typology
Regressed offenders
Fixated offenders
Sexual victimization as a child may contribute to an individual perpetrating CSA if accompanied by other intervening factors

45. Robbery Robbery combines elements of violence and property crime
Personal robbery
Robberies in residences and “muggings” (robberies on the highway or street)
Institutional robbery
Occurs in commercial settings (gas stations, banks, convenience stores, etc.)

46. Robbery Lethal potential Criminal careers of robbers
Robbery carries threat of injury to the victim
Most likely felony to result in homicide
Criminal careers of robbers
Most robbers are generalists with lengthy but varied career
Few inmates specialize exclusively in robbery

47. Robbery and Public Transportation
Robbery on mass transit is fairly rare
Crime prevention strategies may be very effective in public transport settings
Taxi drivers at greatest risk

48. The Motivation of Robbers
Most robberies involve little planning
The decision to offend occurs as part of ongoing social action mediated by prevailing situations and subcultural conditions
Main motivation is financial gain/need
Other motives
Desire to fight
Desire to right a perceived injustice
Desire to enhance street credibility
“Just for kicks”

49. Drug Robberies
Majority of offenders specializing in street robberies targeted individuals also involved in lawbreaking
Many targeted minor drug dealers
Acquire both money and drugs
Drug dealers were unlikely to report the victimization to the police

50. Drug Robberies
Strategies used to minimize risk involved in targeting drug dealers
Intimidation
Anonymity maintenance
Hypervigilance

51. The Gendered Nature of Robbery
Other than rape, robbery is the most gender-differentiated serious crime in the US
Both men and women are motivated by money, but use different methods
Men:
Use physical violence and/or a gun
Rob other males more frequently
Target victims involved in street life
Women
Lack one clear style but rarely use guns unless robbing a man
Most common approach is to rob females in a physically confrontational manner
Others include using their sexuality to attract male victims and acting as accomplices to males in robberies of other men

52. Assault
Most common violent crime and starting point for more serious interpersonal violence
Aggravated assault
Simple assault (most common)
Most aggravated assaults are spontaneous

53. Stranger Assault Low probability of serious injury by stranger
Two primary types of stranger violence:
Crimes that involve exploiting a setting
Spontaneous encounters between strangers in routine settings
Stranger assaults are more likely to involve victims and offenders of similar ages

54. Assault within Families
The majority of assaults involve victims and offenders known to each other, often in familial or intimate relationships
Invading the castle
Family violence is difficult to research because the family as a social institution is private
Discussion of violence among family members violates this privacy

55. Assault within Families
NIBRS data suggest that more than half of all violent crimes involved victims and offenders who were related
Assault is the most frequently occurring violent crime both among the general population and within the family
Women are more likely to be the victims of assaults within the family than in the general population

56. Intimate-Partner Assault
Assaultive behavior between individuals involved in an intimate relationship
Separation assault
A particularly violent response by the male partner that occurs after a woman leaves a violent relationship
Cycle of violence

57. Workplace Violence
A significant problem in America today – more common than generally believed
Includes murder, rape, robbery, and assault committed against persons who are at work or on duty

58. Typology of Workplace Violence
Type 1
Violent acts by criminals with no other connection with the workplace
Type 2
Violence directed at employees by those for whom an organization provides services
Type 3
Violence against coworkers, supervisors, or managers by a present or former employee
Type 4
Violence committed in the workplace by someone who does not work there but who has a personal relationship with an employee

59. Stalking
Stalking:
A course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated visual or physical proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written or implied threats, or a combination thereof, that would cause a reasonable person fear

60. Types of Stalkers Rejected stalkers Intimacy seeking stalkers
Incompetent suitors
Resentful vendetta-motivated stalkers
Predatory stalkers

61. Victim-Offender Relationships in Stalking
80% of stalking victims are women; the majority of stalkers are men
Majority of victims are between 18 and 39 years of age
Majority of victims know the stalker
Female victims are more likely to be stalked by an intimate partner
Male victims are more likely to be stalked by a male stranger or acquaintance

62. Consequences of Stalking
Negative impacts of stalking
Increased concern about personal safety
Need for counseling
Time lost from work
Self-protective measures

63. Cyberstalking Cyberstalking:
An array of high-tech activities in which an offender may engage to harass or “follow individuals, including and the Internet