1. A Revolution in World View

2.  Up until the 17 th century, most European scholars held the medieval view of the universe  This was based on the views of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Christian scholars ◦ Earth did not move ◦ Earth was center of the universe ◦ Planets, sun, heavens, and stars moved around the earth ◦ The universe was finite

3.  Scientific Revolution began and with it came the beginnings of the modern scientific view of the universe ◦ Earth was a moving body ◦ Earth wasn’t at the center of the universe ◦ Earth and planets revolved around the sun ◦ Universe was infinite Another change: When conducting scientific investigations, scholars observed, measured, experimented, and came to reasoned conclusions Although its impact was limited until the 18 th century, it helped turn people away from medieval assumptions

4.  Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) ◦ Polish clergyman ◦ Interested in astronomy, astrology, mathematics, and Church law ◦ Studied in Italy ◦ Was influenced by the Greeks, especially Plato and Pythagoras ◦ Sought a simpler mathematical formulation for how the universe operated ◦ Was convinced that the earth was not the center of the universe ◦ Said sun was the center ◦ Said earth was not stationary but moved in circles around the sun

5.  This change from the earth-centered (geocentric) to a sun-centered (heliocentric) universe has come to be known as the Copernican Revolution  Copernicus did not publish his findings until the year he died, 1543  He feared the ridicule and anger it would arouse, especially from the Church

9.  Tycho Brahe ( 1546-1601) ◦ Danish ◦ Was one of the most important astronomers of 16 th century ◦ Was an aristocrat ◦ Had backing of his king ◦ Built the most advanced laboratory in Europe ◦ Gathered highly accurate and detailed information about the planets and stars without the help of a telescope (not invented yet)  Discovered a new star in 1572 and a new comet in 1577

10.  Brahe believed earth was the stationary center of the universe  Said other planets, not the earth, revolve around the sun  Said sun revolved the earth and moon

11.  Johann Kepler (1571-1630) ◦ German ◦ Tycho Brahe’s assistant ◦ Believed in the Copernican Heliocentric View of the universe ◦ Formulated 3 laws of planetary motion  Planets move in ellipses around the sun  Their velocity varies according to the distance from the sun  The physical relationship between the moving planets could be expressed mathematically This gave support for the Copernican Theory

13.  Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) ◦ Italian ◦ Astronomer ◦ Physicist ◦ Mathematician ◦ Like Copernicus and Kepler, felt there was a hidden harmony to nature ◦ Felt the harmony could be discovered through experimentation and mathematics ◦ Found motion could be described mathematically ◦ Found that once bodies have been set in motion, they will stay in motion

14. ◦ Galileo established rules for experimental physics ◦ Built a telescope in 1609 and used it to discover  The moon has rough surfaces like the earth  Jupiter has moons  Sun has spots Unlike Copernicus, Galileo published and defended his views against any detractors, lay or clergy His Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World was condemned by the Catholic Church at the Inquisition of 1633. This forced him to recant.

16.  Isaac Newton (1642-1727) ◦ English ◦ Professor of mathematics at Cambridge University ◦ Invented calculus ◦ Investigated the nature of light ◦ Described the 3 laws of motion mathematically: inertia, acceleration, and action/reaction ◦ Put forth laws of gravitation ◦ Member of Parliament ◦ Director of the Royal Mint ◦ Knighted by Queen Anne

17.  The Newtonian universe was uniform, mathematically describable, held together by explainable forces, and atomic in nature

18.  New methodology emphasized: ◦ Systematic skepticism ◦ Experimentation ◦ Reasoning based on observed facts and mathematical laws ◦ Two practitioners of this new methodology were Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes

21.  Francis Bacon (1561-1626) ◦ English ◦ Politician ◦ Lord Chancellor of England under James I ◦ Had great interest in new science ◦ Advocated that scientists should engage in the collection of data without preconceived notions ◦ Then scientific conclusions could be drawn using Inductive Reasoning (particular to general)  Draw a general conclusion from many individual observable facts

22.  Thought scientific knowledge could be useful  Could be applied to commerce and industry to improve the human condition ◦ give humans more control over their environment

23.  Rene Descartes (1596-1650) ◦ French ◦ Studied philosophy and mathematics ◦ Practiced as a mathematician, physicist, and metaphysical philosopher in Holland ◦ Discovered analytical geometry (combination of algebra and geometry) ◦ Defended the value of abstract reasoning ◦ Said not to assume old assumptions are facts ◦ Said to begin at the beginning: I think, therefore, I am

24. ◦ He practiced Deductive Reasoning (general to particular) and came up with a variety of conclusions ◦ Thought universe could be divided into 2 parts: the mind and the body ◦ This is called Cartesian Dualism ◦ Believed rigorous reasoning by an individual could discover the truth about nature and then use these truths to help satisfy human needs ◦ Descartes found himself in dispute with medieval thought by first challenging all established authority; second, by accepting as truth only what could be discovered through reason; third, by assuming a purely mechanical/physical universe

25.  There were other discoveries in the 17 th and 18 th centuries using the new scientific method ◦ Vesalius (Flemish) wrote the first comprehensive book on the structure of the human body, based on observations ◦ William Harvey (English) discovered major principles of the circulatory system Vesalius and Harvey are regarded as the founders of the science, Anatomy

28.  Robert Boyle (Irish) ◦ worked in England ◦ Laid foundation for modern chemistry ◦ Said all matter was composed of atoms ◦ Discovered the law of gases/air pump ◦ Proved the idea that a vacuum could exist when sealed chamber is pumped out

29.  Sir John Napier ◦ Invented logarithms ◦ This principle was applied to the slide rule

30.  Basic scientific instruments were invented during the 17 th century: telescope and microscope came from the Dutch Netherlands  Galileo was the first to use the telescope in systematic astronomical observations  Leewenhoek ◦ Dutch ◦ Pioneered the use of the microscope

31.  Huygens ◦ Dutch ◦ Invented the pendulum clock ◦ Worked on problems of air pressure and optics

32.  Methods and discoveries of the Scientific Revolution spread into other areas  One area was political theory  Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were quite prominent

33.  Thomas Hobbes ◦ Influenced by Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, and Galileo Galilei ◦ Used scientific theory to justify absolutism ◦ In Leviathan (1651), he deduced theories on the proper functioning of the state  Said people are usually in competition with one another for self-preservation, avoidance of pain, the pursuit of pleasure  Reasoning will lead people to compromise and join in a contract which creates a state giving great power to a sovereign to keep the peace  Not popular

34.  John Locke ◦ Has a medical education ◦ Was influenced by Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and Robert Boyle ◦ His line of thinking was similar to Hobbes: human nature, social contract ◦ His conclusions were different  Sovereigns had fewer powers than Hobbes gave them  Individuals retained the right to revolt under certain circumstances  He felt British constitutionalism was in accordance with natural law

35.  Men were not the only ones involved with new discoveries and new ideas  Women who were aristocratic and educated were indispensible sources of patronage for scientists  Some women were scientists

36.  Maria Cunitz (1610-1664) ◦ From Silesia that is in modern day Poland ◦ Astronomer ◦ Knew 6 languages ◦ Published a simplified version of Kepler’s mathematical calculations

37.  Maria Sibylla Merian (1647-1717) ◦ German entomologist and artist ◦ Had refined powers of observation learned from her artistic training ◦ Used to study and record features and behaviors of insects and plants found in the New World

38.  Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673) ◦ English ◦ Duchess of Newcastle ◦ Philosopher ◦ Wrote several works like Grounds of Natural Philosophy ◦ Distrusted sensory knowledge

39.  Women could join Italian Academies and that meant they could receive patronage to do their research  They were barred, however, from scientific academies in France and England  They were told money from patronage was limited and what there was, would go to men  Women in other areas had to fight for the right to work in public institutions like Maria Winkleman

40.  Maria Winkleman (1670-1720) ◦ German astronomer ◦ Was not allowed to succeed her husband in an official position at the Berlin Academy of Sciences ◦ Had been her husband’s unofficial partner in astronomy during his tenure ◦ She had discovered a new comet during her time there ◦ She had to find work in private observatories ◦ She returned to the Berlin Academy of Sciences as her son’s unofficial assistant (she had trained her son) Women were being marginalized

41.  The Renaissance: ◦ Stimulated an interest in analyzing and describing the physical reality of the world ◦ Stimulated questioning ◦ Caused a resurgence of classical studies ◦ Study of philosophy, astronomy, physics, and mathematics became important to universities

42.  Scientific research was encouraged in astronomy and mathematics  Universities had illustrious teachers like Galileo and Isaac Newton  This was an age when new instruments were needed to aid navigation and exploration

43.  Helped by the invention of printing press  Helped by the acceptance o new information by Protestants  Governments gave support to science hoping that new discoveries would give governments more prestige and more power ◦ They established scientific academies in England, France, and Italy ◦ They gave laboratories money and brought scientists together ◦ They gave scientists acceptance in society ◦ They contributed to new values supportive of science

44.  By the end of the 17 th century, the former medieval view of the universe had been replaced by the Copernican-Newtonian world view  Accomplishments: ◦ New methodology of modern science was established ◦ Scientists had created foundations for the modern sciences of astronomy, physics, mathematics, chemistry, anatomy, and other disciplines ◦ Science gained acceptance in society