2. Nuclear Chemistry

3. http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/12/world/asia/the-explosion-at- the-japanese-reactor.html DANGERS OF NUCLEAR POWER http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJe7fY-yowk http://www.pixelpress.org/chernobyl/

4. Radioactivity One of the pieces of evidence for the fact that atoms are made of smaller particles came from the work of Marie Curie (1876-1934).One of the pieces of evidence for the fact that atoms are made of smaller particles came from the work of Marie Curie (1876-1934). She discovered radioactivity, the spontaneous disintegration of some elements into smaller pieces.She discovered radioactivity, the spontaneous disintegration of some elements into smaller pieces.

5. Stability of Nuclei Out of > 300 stable isotopes: Even Odd Odd Even Z N 15752 505 31 15 P 19 9 F 2 1 H, 6 3 Li, 10 5 B, 14 7 N, 180 73 Ta

6. Band of Stability and Radioactive Decay http://www.kentchemistry.c om/links/Nuclear/nova.htm

7. Nuclear Reactions vs. Normal Chemical Changes Nuclear reactions involve the nucleusNuclear reactions involve the nucleus The nucleus decays while protons and neutrons are rearrangedThe nucleus decays while protons and neutrons are rearranged The opening of the nucleus releases a tremendous amount of energy that holds the nucleus together – called binding energyThe opening of the nucleus releases a tremendous amount of energy that holds the nucleus together – called binding energy “Normal” Chemical Reactions involve electrons, not protons and neutrons“Normal” Chemical Reactions involve electrons, not protons and neutrons

8. Mass Defect Some of the mass can be converted into energySome of the mass can be converted into energy Shown by a very famous equation!Shown by a very famous equation! E=mc 2 EnergyMass Speed of light

9.  m = [Z(m p + m e ) + (A-Z)m n ] – m atom  m = mass defect (amu) m p = mass of a proton (1.007277 amu) m n = mass of a neutron (1.008665 amu) m e = mass of an electron (0.000548597 amu) M atom = mass of nuclide A Z X (amu) Z = atomic number (number of protons) A = mass number (number of nucleons) http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/howtosolveit/Nuclear/nuclear_binding_energy.htm

10. PROBLEM: Find the mass defect and binding energy for a nucleus of Helium-4 Solution: Given: Dm = [Z(m p + m e ) + (A-Z)m n ] – m atom Dm = mass defect (amu) m p = mass of a proton(1.007277 amu) m n = mass of a neutron(1.008665 amu) m e = mass of an electron(0.000548597 amu) M atom = mass of nuclide A Z X (amu) Z = atomic number (number of protons) A = mass number (number of nucleons)

11. Types of Radiation Alpha (ά) – a positively charged helium isotope - we usually ignore the charge because it involves electrons, not protons and neutrons Alpha (ά) – a positively charged helium isotope - we usually ignore the charge because it involves electrons, not protons and neutrons Beta (β) – an electronBeta (β) – an electron Gamma (γ) – pure energy; called a ray rather than a particleGamma (γ) – pure energy; called a ray rather than a particle

12. Other Nuclear Particles Neutron Neutron Positron – a positive electron Positron – a positive electron Proton – usually referred to as hydrogen-1Proton – usually referred to as hydrogen-1 Any other elemental isotopeAny other elemental isotope

13. Penetrating Ability

14. Balancing Nuclear Reactions In the reactants (starting materials – on the left side of an equation) and products (final products – on the right side of an equation) Atomic numbers must balance and Mass numbers must balance Use a particle or isotope to fill in the missing protons and neutrons

15. Nuclear Reactions Alpha emissionAlpha emission Note that mass number (A) goes down by 4 and atomic number (Z) goes down by 2. Nucleons (nuclear particles… protons and neutrons) are rearranged but conserved

16. Nuclear Reactions Beta emissionBeta emission Note that mass number (A) is unchanged and atomic number (Z) goes up by 1.

17. Other Types of Nuclear Reactions Positron ( 0 +1  ): a positive electron Electron capture: Electron capture: the capture of an electron 207

18. Learning Check What radioactive isotope is produced in the following bombardment of boron? 10 B + 4 He ? + 1 n 5 2 0

19. Write Nuclear Equations! Write the nuclear equation for the beta emitter Co-60.

21. Half-Life HALF-LIFE is the time that it takes for 1/2 a sample to decompose.HALF-LIFE is the time that it takes for 1/2 a sample to decompose. The rate of a nuclear transformation depends only on the “reactant” concentration.The rate of a nuclear transformation depends only on the “reactant” concentration.

22. Where N is the final amount of material. Where is the original amount of material present. is the time in the same units as the half-life. is the half-life.

23. Half-Life Decay of 20.0 mg of 15 O. What remains after 3 half-lives? After 5 half-lives?

24. Kinetics of Radioactive Decay For each duration (half-life), one half of the substance decomposes. For example: Ra-234 has a half-life of 3.6 days If you start with 50 grams of Ra-234 After 3.6 days > 25 grams After 7.2 days > 12.5 grams After 10.8 days > 6.25 grams

25. Learning Check! The half life of I-123 is 13 hr. How much of a 64 mg sample of I-123 is left after 39 hours?

26. Artificial Nuclear Reactions New elements or new isotopes of known elements are produced by bombarding an atom with a subatomic particle such as a proton or neutron -- or even a much heavier particle such as 4 He and 11 B. Reactions using neutrons are called g reactions because a gamma ray is usually emitted. Radioisotopes used in medicine are often made by gamma reactions.

27. Artificial Nuclear Reactions Example of a  reaction is production of radioactive 31 P for use in studies of phosphorus uptake in the body. 31 15 P + 1 0 n ---> 32 15 P + 

28. Transuranium Elements Elements beyond 92 (transuranium) made starting with a gamma reaction 238 92 U + 1 0 n ---> 239 92 U + g 239 92 U ---> 239 93 Np + 0 -1 b 239 93 Np ---> 239 94 Pu + 0 -1 b 239 93 Np ---> 239 94 Pu + 0 -1 b

29. Nuclear Fission

30. Fission is the splitting of atoms These atoms are usually very large, so that they are not as stable. Fission chain has three general steps: 1. Initiation. Reaction of a single atom starts the chain (e.g., 235 U + neutron) 2. Propagation. 236 U fission releases neutrons that initiate other fissions 3. Termination.

31. Representation of a fission process.

32. Nuclear Fission & POWER Currently about 104 nuclear power plants in the U.S. and about 440 worldwide.Currently about 104 nuclear power plants in the U.S. and about 440 worldwide. 14% of the world’s energy comes from nuclear power.14% of the world’s energy comes from nuclear power.

33. Diagram of a nuclear power plant. http://www.kentchemistry.com/moviesfiles/Units/NuclearMovies.htm

34. Fuel rods are usually composed of fissionable isotopes such as 235 U, 233 U and 239 Pu. Control rods have pellets inside that are made of very efficient neutron capturers. These neutron capturing materials have the ability to stop nuclear fission. An example of such a material is cadmium.

35. The moderator serves to slow down the high speed neutrons "flying" all around the reactor core. If a neutron is moving too fast it passes right through the U-235 nucleus. It must be slowed down to be captured by the nucleus and to induce fission. The most common moderator is water, but sometimes it can be another material such as graphite. The coolant absorbs heat from the reaction. The most common coolant used in nuclear power plants today is water. This heated water does not boil because it is kept at an extremely intense pressure, thus raising its boiling point above the normal 100° Celsius.

36. Nuclear Fusion Fusion small nuclei combine 2 H + 3 H 4 He + 1 n + 1 1 2 0 Occurs in the sun and other stars Energy

37. Nuclear Fusion Fusion Excessive heat can not be contained Attempts at “cold” fusion have FAILED. “Hot” fusion is difficult to contain

38. Effects of Radiation

39. Geiger Counter Used to detect radioactive substances

41. Radiocarbon Dating Radioactive C-14 is formed in the upper atmosphere by nuclear reactions initiated by neutrons in cosmic radiation 14 N + 1 o n ---> 14 C + 1 H The C-14 is oxidized to CO 2, which circulates through the biosphere. When a plant dies, the C-14 is not replenished. But the C-14 continues to decay with t 1/2 = 5730 years. Activity of a sample can be used to date the sample.

42. Nuclear Medicine: Imaging Thyroid imaging using Thyroid imaging using I-123

43. Technetium-99 is used to detect brain tumors. Barium-137 is used to image gastrointestinal irregularities Radium-226 and Cobalt-60 are used for radiation therapy in cancer patients. Uranium-238 is used to date rocks.

44. Food Irradiation Food can be irradiated with  rays from 60 Co or 137 Cs.Food can be irradiated with  rays from 60 Co or 137 Cs. Irradiated milk has a shelf life of 3 mo. without refrigeration.Irradiated milk has a shelf life of 3 mo. without refrigeration. USDA has approved irradiation of meats and eggs.USDA has approved irradiation of meats and eggs.