1. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute CSCI-4210 – Operating Systems David Goldschmidt, Ph.D.

2.  Without synchronization amongst processes (and threads), results are unpredictable how do variables x and y become corrupted?

3.  Processes compete for resources  Once obtained, the resource is fully dedicated to a process  Often, mutual exclusion is required ▪ No other process is allowed access to the resource  Processes cooperate with other processes  Shared resources  Specific ordering or sequencing of events all of this applies to threads, too!

4.  A semaphore is a synchronization mechanism  Semaphore S is a special integer variable  OS provides two atomic operations on S:  wait(S) or P(S): ▪ wait for a resource to become available  signal(S) or V(S): ▪ signal that we’re done using a resource

5.  The wait(S) operation decrements semaphore S only when S is available  wait(S) { while ( S <= 0 ) { /** no-op **/ ; } S--; } this will block indefinitely in a busy wait

6.  The signal(S) operation increments semaphore S to release a resource  signal(S) { S++; } to protect critical section  wait(S); // CRITICAL // SECTION signal(S);

7.  A binary semaphore provides mutually exclusive access to a shared resource  Initialize semaphore S to 1  Use wait(S) and signal(S)  Possible values of S are 0 and 1

8.  A counting semaphore controls access to a finite number of resources:  e.g. open files, network connections, shared buffers, etc. // n instances of a finite resource semaphore S = n Write pseudocode for the producer-consumer problem using semaphores to synchronize access to the shared buffer of size N

9.  A process faces starvation when it is forced to wait indefinitely for shared resource X as other processes use that shared resource X  Also known as indefinite blocking

10.  A system enters a deadlock state when multiple processes are unable to obtain a lock on all necessary resources  After acquiring a resource, a process holds that resource indefinitely // P 0... wait(S) wait(Q)... signal(Q) signal(S)... // P 1... wait(Q) wait(S)... signal(S) signal(Q)... semaphore S, Q Deadlock!

11.  Deadlock requires four conditions:  Mutual exclusion  Hold and wait  No preemption  Circular wait ▪ i.e. a cycle!

12.  A resource allocation graph is a directed graph showing processes and resources

15. Rice  Five philosophers at a table  Each philosopher thinks or eats  To eat, a philosopher must pick up the closest two chopsticks  A philosopher may only pick up one chopstick at a time  Represents allocating shared resources to competing and cooperating processes

16. Rice  Potential solution:  Can deadlock occur? // philosopher i while ( true ) { think(); wait( fork[i] ); wait( fork[(i+1)%5] ); eat(); signal( fork[(i+1)%5] ); signal( fork[i] ); } semaphore fork[] = { 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 };

17.  Allow the system to enter a deadlock state, then recover by:  Terminating one or all deadlocked processes  Rollback deadlocked processes to a safe checkpointed state  Or....

18.  Guarantee that the system will never enter a deadlocked state  Deadlock prevention ensures that at least one of the four necessary conditions is never met  Deadlock avoidance allows a system to change state by allocating resource(s) only when it is certain deadlock will not occur as a result