1. Observational Research When to use: 1. Measure physical actions 2. Measure verbal behaviors

2. When? - little is known about a phenomena - little is known about a phenomena -different views are held from insiders versus outsiders -different views are held from insiders versus outsiders - phenomena is obscured from the view of outsiders - phenomena is obscured from the view of outsiders - phenomena is hidden from public view - phenomena is hidden from public view

3. Minimal conditions Problem concerned with insiders view of human meanings and interactions; appropriate for case study; addressed by qualitative data Problem concerned with insiders view of human meanings and interactions; appropriate for case study; addressed by qualitative data Phenomena is observable within an everyday life setting Phenomena is observable within an everyday life setting Researcher can gain access Researcher can gain access Limited in size and scope Limited in size and scope

4. Features Interpretive science – meaning and man-man interaction Interpretive science – meaning and man-man interaction “Here and now” “Here and now” Theorizing stresses human interaction Theorizing stresses human interaction “Problem setting” “Problem setting” Qualitative methods used Qualitative methods used Researcher directly observes, in-field Researcher directly observes, in-field

5. Considerations Is the topic sensitive? Is the topic sensitive? Can you observe the phenomena? Can you observe the phenomena? Do you have lots of time? Do you have lots of time? Are you sure what you are looking for? Are you sure what you are looking for?

6. Types of Observations Direct – People know you are watching them (Could be reacting to you?) Direct – People know you are watching them (Could be reacting to you?) –Continuous monitoring (Hawthorne effect?) –Time allocations – randomly selecting place/time

7. Unobtrusive Observation Individuals do NOT know they are being observed Individuals do NOT know they are being observed Validity question: numerous repetitions often needed Validity question: numerous repetitions often needed Is it ethical? IRB approval! Is it ethical? IRB approval! –Behavioral trace –Disguised field observations

8. Goals Descriptive research -- see and record Descriptive research -- see and record Inferential – observe and draw inference Inferential – observe and draw inference Evaluative – make inference AND judgment Evaluative – make inference AND judgment

9. Advantages Natural setting Natural setting Researcher: known/anonymous Researcher: known/anonymous : participate or be passive : participate or be passive Use to triangulate Use to triangulate Most useful when studying a small unit such as a classroom, advisory council Most useful when studying a small unit such as a classroom, advisory council

10. Disadvantages Less researcher “control” Less researcher “control” Hawthorne effect Hawthorne effect Limited generalizability Limited generalizability If researcher participates, then may lose objectivity If researcher participates, then may lose objectivity Not realistic to use with large groups Not realistic to use with large groups

11. Starter Reference Participant Observation: A Methodology for Human Studies, (1989), Applied Social Science Research Series, Vol. 15, Sage Publications, Newbury Park CA Participant Observation: A Methodology for Human Studies, (1989), Applied Social Science Research Series, Vol. 15, Sage Publications, Newbury Park CA