1. Topic 1 Studying society

2. How is the sociological approach different from the biological, psychological or journalistic approach?

3. What are social structures and can you give examples? All societies are built up of different parts and all are organised in some way. There are patterns and sets of organisations that act as scaffolding to keep society stable. Examples of social structures include: The education system The legal system The political system

4. What are social processes and can you explain these? Our lives, form the day we are born all the way through to old age, are affected and influenced by: Our contact with other people and our links with important organisations such as the education system During this contact the following social processes can happen: Socialisation Labelling Discrimination

5. Social issues: What are the causes and consequences of inequality? Social issueCauseConsequence PovertyUnequal economic system where those at the top take too much which means not leaving any for those at the bottom Those in poverty have to turn to crime to survive DiscriminationIdeas passed on through generations from hundreds of years ago about who is superior e.g. men over women, white people are superior to black people etc Can cause a divide in society between social groups

6. Social issues: Who has power in society and how do they use it? Marxists argue that the bourgeoisie have power in society. They control all institutions including the education system, the legal system, the media etc. They use these systems to spread their ideas (ruling class ideology) so that the proletariat continue to work hard for the bourgeoisie and do not realise they are being exploited.

7. What is culture? The whole way of life of a particular society or social group. Culture includes the values, norms, customs, beliefs, knowledge, skills and language of the society or group

8. What is socialisation? Learning the norms and values of the society that you live in. There are two types: primary and secondary.

9. What are norms, values, roles and status? Norms: Acting ‘normally’ and not abnormally. Norms are unwritten rules that people follow. ValueS: What someone sees as important and what they try to get. Role: A way of behaving that matches the situation you are in Status: The honour or prestige attached to a person’s position in society

10. What is primary and secondary socialisation? Primary socialisation= The process of early childhood learning, usually within families during which babies and infants acquire the basic norms, values, behaviour patterns and language needed for later life Secondary socialisation= During secondary socialisation individuals learn more complex norms and values. This occurs in later childhood e.g. in school and develops throughout our adult lives e.g. the media and the workplace can be very influential in teaching us norms, values and customs

11. What is social control and how do agencies of social control work? The process by which people are persuaded to obey the rules and conform Family- teaches right and wrong Schools- teachers enforce rules Work- Need to conform to earn a living Religion- teaches moral values Peer groups- will judge us negatively if we disobey the rules

12. How are we socialised into gender roles? When you are pointed in a certain direction that shapes your gender e.g. what colour clothes to wear and what toys to play with

13. What is the nature versus nurture debate? Nature- the belief that our characteristics and behaviour is something that is genetically inherited Nurture – the belief that our characteristics and behaviour is learned from the environment we were brought up in.

14. What are the differences between consensus and conflict approaches to sociology? ConsensusConflict Functionalism- Based on institutions working together (organic analogy) and everyone agreeing on the norms and values of society leading to a harmonious society Marxism- society is controlled by the bourgeoisie. The conflict in society is between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat Feminism- society is controlled by men (patriarchal society). The conflict in society is between the men and women

15. What is quantitative and qualitative data? Quantitative data is data that is numerical and is often presented in tables and graphs. This type of data shows numbers, trends and patterns. Qualitative data is expressed in words rather than numbers. It does not show trends and patterns but does give an in depth insight into thoughts, feelings and emotions.

16. What do validity, reliability and representativeness mean in sociological research? Data is valid if it gives a true and accurate account of something. Data is not valid if someone gives a false answer or acts in a way they wouldn’t normally act. Another word for reliable is repeatable. They think you should be able to repeat research in the exact same way to show that findings were not just a one off fluke. A researcher may choose to study a sample of a larger group. If the sample is representative, those in it will be typical of the larger group. This will allow the findings to be generalised, i.e. applied to all members of the group, not just those in the sample

17. What is a hypothesis? It is all very well to be interested in a topic but the research must be focused. If the researcher already has a hunch about something, or wants to test an idea, they should create a hypothesis. This is simply a statement that can be tested. It is a prediction of what the research will find. For example: “students who study sociology watch the news more often than students who do not study sociology” is a hypothesis. It can be tested by collecting information on what students watch the news the most. This will prove the hypothesis to be either true or false.

18. What are the positive and negative points of using experiments? Experiments take place in a controlled setting. An example is Bandura’s study of the effects of watching a woman attack a bobo doll. AdvantagesDisadvantages Allows sociologists to identify cause and effect relationships e.g. Bandura found that the more violent media you watch the more like you are to be violent yourself Experiments can be set up in a standardised way and repeated over and over again (reliable) Can be difficult to get sociologists to take part Participants will know they’re in an experiment so there is a high chance they will have the “hawthorne effect” (ruins validity)

19. What is the Hawthorne effect? When a participant knows they are being observed they change their behaviour. E.g. if students are being watched in school they are likely to act on their best behaviour. The hawthorne effect can ruin the validity of studies.

20. What different types of questionnaires can be used? Postal / Email Questionnaires: The researcher sends out the questionnaires to the respondent. They complete them and send them back to the researcher. Direct Questionnaires: The researcher waits whilst the respondent fills in the questionnaire.

21. What are the positive and negative points of using questionnaires? Postal / Email Questionnaires: The researcher sends out the questionnaires to the respondent. They complete them and send them back to the researcher. ADVANTAGES:  hey are quick to distribute, so it is possible to send them to lots of people (representative and reliable). DISADVANTAGES: People might not send them back (only about 10% completion rate– reduces representativeness); People also might not understand the questions (less valid). Direct Questionnaires: The researcher waits whilst the respondent fills in the questionnaire. ADVANTAGES: everyone who received a questionnaire completes it (representative and reliable); the researcher can also explain what questions mean if they need to (valid). DISADVANTAGES: the respondent might be influenced by the researcher and therefore doesn’t answer honestly (researcher effects).

22. What different types of interviews can be used? Informal (unstructured) Formal (structured) Semi-structured Group interviews (unstructured)

23. What are the positive and negative points of using interviews? Informal (Unstructured) Interviews: The researcher has an open discussion with the participant with no set questions. ADVANTAGES: • Participants can talk about what is important to them (valid); • The researcher can ask the participant what their answers mean (valid). DISADVANTAGES: • Every interview is different, so it is hard to compare the results of all the interviews (less reliable); • The respondent might be influenced by the researcher and therefore doesn’t answer honestly (social desirability effect). Formal (structured) Interviews: The researcher decides on questions beforehand and asks the participant face-to-face in a spoken interview. ADVANTAGES: • All participants are asked exactly the same questions (reliable); • The researcher can explain what questions mean (valid); DISADVANTAGES: Participants don’t have much freedom to expand on their answers Again, the respondent might be influenced by the researcher and therefore doesn’t answer honestly (social desirability effect).

24. What different types of observation techniques can be used? Participant Observations: The researcher joins in with the activities of the participants (the people they are observing). Non-participant Observations: The researcher does not join in with activities but watches from a distance, this could be through a camera Observations can also be: Overt The participants know they are being observed. OR Covert The researcher goes undercover, so the participants do not know they are being observed

25. What are the positive and negative points of using observation techniques? Participant Observations: The researcher joins in with the activities of the participants (the people they are observing). ADVANTAGES: • The researcher can directly watch how participants behave (valid); • The researcher can see the world from participants’ point of view (valid). DISADVANTAGES: • If participants know they are being observed, then they will not act naturally (Hawthorne Effect – less valid); • The researcher might have to get involved in criminal behaviour (unethical); • If participants do not know they are being observed, then they can not give their permission (consent – unethical). Non-participant Observations: The researcher observes the participants at a distance (fly on the wall). ADVANTAGES: • The researcher can directly watch how participants behave (valid). DISADVANTAGES: • If participants know they are being observed, then they will not act naturally (Hawthorne Effect – less valid); • The researcher cannot see the world from the participants’ point of view (less valid); • If participants do not know they are being observed, then they cannot give their permission (consent –unethical).

26. What different types of secondary data can be used? Secondary Research (Sources of Information) Statistics Numerical (quantitative) data collected by official organisations, private companies or other researchers. Media reports, blogs, forums etc. Written reports and commentaries by journalists and other people. Letters, emails, profile pages etc. Personal correspondence between people. Research Studies Studies conducted by other researchers

27. What are the positive and negative points of using secondary data? SECONDARY RESEARCH This is when researchers use data collected by somebody else. Strengths (more reliable)  It is easy to collect a lot of data quickly and cheaply.  There are lots of sources of data available. Weaknesses (less valid)  The information is more likely to be biased.  The researchers might have their own agenda.

28. What different types of sample can sociologists use? Sampling MethodStrengthsWeaknesses Stratified Sampling This involves picking people from different groups within the population (eg. different genders, ethnicities, ages, social classes). The sample will be representative and give the point of view of all the different groups in the population. It is more time-consuming to select the sample than other sampling methods Random Sampling The sample is selected by picking names out of a hat (or with a computer) – like the National Lottery balls. There is no researcher bias in who is selected and everyone stands an equal chance of being selected. It is also quick and easy to use. The sample might be all the same sort of people (eg. too many males), so it will not be representative of the whole population. Quota Sampling The researcher picks participants until they have the number they need (ie their ‘quota’). It is a quick and easy way to select the right sort of people for the research. The sample is likely to be biased because the researcher is choosing the participants. Systematic Sampling The researcher uses a system to pick the participants (eg. every 10 th name on the register). The participants will be a crosssection of the population, so will hopefully be representative. Only the people on the register stand a chance of being selected. Snowball Sampling The researcher selects one person, then asks them to put them in touch with other people, etc. Useful for researching hard to contact groups (eg. gangs). Very time-consuming, so only small samples are used and the results are not generalisable.

29. What ethical issues do sociologists need to be aware of? The main ethical issues: Get informed consent (or parents’ consent for under 16s). Debrief participants after the research. Do not harm or distress the participants. Give participants the right to withdraw. Maintain confidentiality. Keep the research anonymous. Do not deceive the participants.

30. How is sociology useful in making and implementing policies in areas such as education, welfare and criminal justice? Education- can find out why certain groups are underachieving and come up with ways to stop these groups underachieving e.g. boys Welfare- can find out which groups struggle the most in society and find ways to support them e.g. improving employment prospects for the working class Criminal justice- can find out which groups offend the most and why. Can come up with policies to stop these groups committing crime.

31. Can you give 3 recent examples from the news that relate to anything above? You have to read the newspaper or watch the news to be able to do this!