1. Assalamualaikum Raudhah mohd Salleh 1121139 Nur Afifah Sarkhan 1120227 Nur Afifah bt Muhammad Rafi 1120234 Siti Sholehah bt Che Ani 1120238 Nur Asikin Mohd Nazri 1120081 Nor Syalmira bt Amir 1120225

2. POLYMERS

3. STRUCTURE

4. COVALENT BONDS Non-metallic elements have a high number of valence electrons Prefer to gain electrons in chemical reactions. Form anions. Instead, two non-metallic atoms can share valence electrons with each other. This type of electron sharing, called covalent bonding, keeps the shared electrons close to both atomic nuclei. One pair of shared electrons makes one covalent bond. A molecule is a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.

6. LEWIS STRUCTURES Rather than writing a sentence for the number of valence electrons on an atom, it can be more useful to draw a picture containing this information. A Lewis structure for an atom starts with a chemical symbol, with a dot added for each valence electron.

8. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN POLYMERS Carbon is the most important element in polymers. Because it starts with only four valence electrons, and wants to share four more, carbon forms a wide variety of covalent bonds. Most importantly, carbon forms strong bonds with itself. Long, strong chains or nets made of thousands of carbon atoms form the backbone of a polymer.

9. Examples of Functional Groups Acid group (-COOH) Alcohol group (-OH) N-amino group (-NH 2 ) Chloride (-Cl ) Styrene (-C 6 H 6 )

10. POLYMER CLASSES Fibers Thermoplastics Elastomers Thermosets

11. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

12. STRENGTH There is more than one kind of strength : Tensile strength. A polymer has tensile strength if it is strong when one pulls on it. Tensile strength is important for a material that is going to be stretched or under tension. Compressional strength. A polymer sample has compressional strength if it is strong when one tries to compress it. Example : Concrete is an example of a material with good compressional strength. Anything that has to support weight from underneath has to have good compressional strength. Flexural strength. A polymer sample has flexural strength if it is strong when one tries to bend it.

13. INSTRON.

14. Likewise, one can imagine similar tests for compressional or flexural strength. In all cases, the strength is the stress needed to break the sample. Since tensile stress is the force placed on the sample divided by the cross-sectional area of the sample, tensile stress, and tensile strength as well, are both measured in units of force divided by units of area, usually N/cm 2. Stress and strength can also be measured in megapascals (MPa) or gigapascals (GPa). It's easy to convert between the different units, because 1 MPa = 100 N/cm 2, 1 GPa = 100,000 N/cm 2, and of course 1 GPa = 1,000 MPa. Other times, stress and strength are measured in the old English units of pounds per square inch, or psi. If you ever have to convert psi to N/cm 2, the conversion factor is 1 N/cm 2 = 1.45 psi.

15. Elongation Elongation is a type of deformation. Deformation is simply a change in shape that anything undergoes under stress. When we're talking about tensile stress, the sample deforms by stretching, becoming longer. Usually we talk about percent elongation, which is just the length the polymer sample is after it is stretched (L), divided by the original length of the sample (L 0 ), and then multiplied by 100.

16. Two important things we measure are ultimate elongation and elastic elongation. Ultimate elongation is important for any kind of material. It is nothing more than the amount you can stretch the sample before it breaks. Elastic elongation is the percent elongation you can reach without permanently deforming your sample. That is, how much can you stretch it, and still have the sample snap back to its original length once you release the stress on it. Example : Elastomers have to be able to stretch a long distance and still bounce back. Most of them can stretch from 500 to 1000 % elongation and return to their original lengths without any trouble.

17. Modulus If we want to know how well a material resists deformation, we measure something called modulus. We make a plot of stress versus elongation. This plot is called a stress-strain curve. The height of the curve when the sample breaks is the tensile strength, and the tensile modulus is the slope of this plot. If the slope is steep, the sample has a high tensile modulus, which means it resists deformation. If the slope is gentle, then the sample has a low tensile modulus, which means it is easily deformed.

18. TS = tensile strength σy = yield strength Toughness = Energy required to break (area under curve)

19. Stress Strain Behavior of Polymers

20. Toughness Toughness is really a measure of the energy a sample can absorb before it breaks. If the height of the triangle in the plot is strength, and the base of the triangle is strain, then the area is proportional to strength times strain. Since strength is proportional to the force needed to break the sample, and strain is measured in units of distance (the distance the sample is stretched), then strength times strain is proportional is force times distance Toughness is measured by the area under the curve of the stress-strain curve. This area has the units of energy/unit of volume. This area is the work expended in deforming the material

21. APPLICATION OF POLYMERS

22. Low density polyethylene, LDPE is relatively soft, and most of it is used in the production of plastic films, such as those used in sandwich bags.

23. Polypropylene is used extensively in the automotive industry for interior trim, such as instrument panels, and in food packaging and formed into fibers of very low absorbance and high stain resistance, used in clothing and home furnishings, especially carpeting.

24. Styrofoam is a trade name for foamed polystyrene. This type of polystyrene is used extensively in home appliances, such as the interior of refrigerators and air conditioner housing.

25. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is rigid and somewhat brittle. About two-thirds of the PVC produced annually is used in the manufacture of pipe.

26. polytetrafluoroethylene, PTFE - Its most familiar household use is as a coating on cooking utensils (physical properties over a large temperature range) Polyamides (nylon) - strong and long wearing, making them well suited for use in carpeting, upholstery fabric, tire cords, brushes, and turf for athletic fields. Polyacrylamide can absorb many times its mass in water. This property is useful in a variety of applications, such as in diapers and in potting soil.