1. CHAPTER 10 Premodern Humans

2. The Pleistocene The Ice Age Marked by advances and retreats of massive continental glaciations At least 15 major and 50 minor glacial advances have been documented in Europe. Impact on hominins Climate change Flaura and faunal life shifted Middle Pleistocene 780,000 to 125,000 ya Late Pleistocene 125,000 to 10,000 ya

3. Glacials and Interglacials Glacials - climatic intervals when continental ice sheets cover much of the northern continents. Associated with colder temperatures in northern latitudes and more arid conditions in southern latitudes, most notably in Africa. Interglacials - climatic intervals when continental ice sheets are retreating, eventually becoming much reduced in size. Northern latitudes are associated with warmer temperatures, while in southern latitudes the climate becomes wetter.

4. Changing Pleistocene Environments in Africa

5. Changing Pleistocene Environments in Eurasia Changing migration routes

6. Middle Pleistocene Hominins Widely distributed Africa, Asia and Europe Replacing, or coexisting with, earlier hominins in previously exploited habitats Europe becomes more permanently and densely occupied Middle Pleistocene hominins mostly remained in areas previously occupied by Homo erectus Morphology Large H. erectus-like face, projected brows, low forehead, thick cranial vault Increased brain size, rounded braincase, vertical nose, and reduced occipital Transitional mix of ancestral and derived traits

7. European Hominins H. antecessor Northern Spain 780,000 years ago Possible common ancestor to both Neandertals and AMH Taxonomic trouble May represent H. heidelbergensis, H. erectus, or separate species H. heidelbergensis Germany 500,000 years ago Shares H. erectus and H. sapiens traits Could be a link Could be one of early or late

8. Bodo Cranium The earliest evidence of Homo heidelbergensis in Africa May be a late H. erectus Possibly defleshed with stone tools May imply cannibalism, ritual purpose, or both Dated to approx. 600,000 ya

9. Homo heidelbergensis Skull from Zambia Kabwe (Broken Hill) Homo heidelbergensis skull from Zambia Robust browridges

10. Asian Hominins Dali, China Fossils display H. erectus and H. sapiens traits Cranial capacity of 1120 cm 3 Jinniushan, China 200,000 ya Cranial capacity appx 1260 cm 3 Many Chinese researchers have argued that this evidence suggests regional continuity to modern populations

12. Middle Pleistocene Culture Continued Acheulian tool technology H. erectus tools carried over into the Middle Pleistocene Little change until near the end of the period Levallois Technique Later premodern humans in Africa and Europe Better control of flake size and shape “Tortoise core” Suggests increased cognitive abilities in later premodern populations

13. The Levallois Technique

14. Middle Pleistocene Culture Middle Pleistocene 780 to 120 thousand ya Premodern humans Continued to live in caves and open-air sites May have increased their use of caves Sites in China contain evidence of human-controlled fire Researchers found concentrations of bones, stones, and artifacts at several sites Suggests that hominids built temporary structures

15. Middle Pleistocene Culture Food sources Fruits, vegetables, fish, seeds, nuts, bird eggs Each in its own season Sea exploitation New to human evolution during this period Little, but some evidence supporting advanced hunting among early Homo Schöningen, Germany in 1995 Wood spears found Most likely used as throwing spears to hunt large animals Horse, deer, and bison Animals were likely trapped between the pre-human hunters (likely H. heidelbergensis) and the lake

16. Premodern Humans of the Late Pleistocene Neandertals Increasingly being placed by researchers into a separate species Homo neanderthalensis vs Homo sapiens neanderthalensis Discovered in 1856 In Neander Valley, Germany Before discovery of H. erectus or any Australopithecine Three years before On the Origin of Species Remains have been found in Europe and the Middle- east Neandertal-like early Homo has been found in China and Africa Interglacials subside, and glacials arise in Europe Clothing Mousterian tools Hunting Mammoths

17. Culture of Neandertals Mousterian tool industry Improved on previous techniques Trimmed a flint nodule around the edges to form a disk-shaped core Core is then struck down into nearly nothing, and discarded Therefore, a larger proportion of flake tools than the Acheulian tool kits Flakes are trimmed into various forms Scrapers Points Knives

19. Neandertal Morphology Brain Size Larger than H. sapiens today (1520 cm 3 compared to approx. 1400 cm 3 ) Less encephalization Perhaps an adaptation to colder climates Cranium Large, long, low, and bulging at the sides Structure Robust, barrel-chested, and powerfully muscled Shorter limbs than modern H. sapiens Short stocky bodies reduce heat loss Long broad noses Warming the air

23. La Chapelle-aux-Saints Skull Projecting face, and low vault Occipital bun Expands the back of the cranial vault Origins are unclear Cranial balance Expanding brain Hunting Still remain in some human populations today

24. St. Césaire St. Césaire, among the “last” Neandertals.

25. Upper Paleolithic Begins approximately 40,000 years ago A cultural period usually associated with modern humans Also found with some Neandertals Distinguished by technological innovation in various stone tool industries Best known examples from western Europe Similar industries are also known from central and eastern Europe and Africa

26. Time Line for Neandertal Fossil Discoveries

27. Shanidar Cave Neandertal Site Shanidar cave Zagros Mountains of northeastern Iraq Fieldworkers found partial skeletons of nine individuals Four of them deliberately buried. Shanidar 1 Skeleton of a male Lived to be 30 to 45 years old, a very old age for prehistoric human Height is estimated at 5 feet 7 inches Cranial capacity is 1,600 cm3

28. Shanidar 1 Evidence of injuries that made it impossible to perform normal activities leading researches to believe he must have been helped by others Could he represent Neandertal compassion for the disabled?

29. The Denisovans: Another Hominin? Denisova Cave, southern Siberia Discovered while analyzing the Neandertal genome Finger and tooth dated to 50,000-30,000 ya Mitochondrial DNA shows significant genetic distance from both Homo sapiens and Neandertals Suggests interbreeding soon after AMH emergence from Africa 50,000 years ago Split from Neandertal ancestors 400,000 years ago, Neandertals head west, Denisovans head East Melanesians Residence of Papua New Guinea share 1/20 th Denovian DNA Suggests interbreeding

30. Central Asia Teshik-Tash Site in Uzbekistan Remains of Neandertal child associated with tools of the Mousterian industry Southern Siberia Remains exhibiting DNA evidence of Neandertal genetic pattern confirmed by nuclear DNA tests

31. Chatelperronian Arose from the Mousterian toolkit Pertaining to an Upper Paleolithic industry found in France and Spain Contains “knife-like” blade tools Associated with some Neandertal groups Suggestive of some cultural hybridization

32. Subsistence Neandertals were successful hunters Evidenced by fauna remains at Neandertal sites Used close-proximity spears for hunting Spear thrower and bow and arrow not invented until the Upper Paleolithic Patterns of trauma in Neandertal remains Match those of contemporary rodeo performers Indicates close proximity to prey

33. Symbolic Behavior of Neandertals Speech Prevailing consensus has been that Neandertals were capable of articulate speech Even if Neandertals did speak, they did not have the same language capabilities of modern Homo sapiens Burials Burials included grave goods Animal bones and stone tools Bodies of their dead are often placed in a flexed, sometimes fetal, position

34. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Tool Technology Numerous flake tools; few highly specialized; use of bone, antler, or ivory very rare; few tools with more than one or two parts Many varieties of stone tools; many for specialized functions; frequent use of bone, antler, and ivory; many tools comprised of two or more component parts

35. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Hunting Efficiency and Weapons No long-distance hunting weapons; close-proximity weapons used Use of spear-thrower and bow and arrow; wider range of social contacts, perhaps larger, more organized hunting parties (including game drives)

36. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Stone Material Transport Stone materials transported only short distances Stone tool raw materials transported over longer distances, implying wider social networks and perhaps trade

37. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Art Uncommon; probably mostly personal; some items misinterpreted as “art”; others may be intrusive from overlying Upper Paleolithic contexts; cave art absent Artwork more common, transportable objects as well as elaborate cave art; well executed, using a variety of materials and techniques; stylistic sophistication

38. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Neandertals Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans Burial Deliberate burial at several sites; graves unelaborated; graves frequently lack artifacts Burials more complex, frequently including tools and remains of animals

39. Molecular Connections: The Genetic Evidence Past 15 years Tremendous advances in sequencing Neandertal mitochondrial and nuclear DNA Modern human populations outside of Africa possess 1-4% of distinctive Neandertal DNA Melanesian populations contain 4-5% of distinctive Denisovan DNA Suggests interbreeding of premodern and modern populations

40. Phylogeny of Genus Homo - Very Modest Species Diversity

41. Phylogeny of Genus Homo - Considerable Species Diversity